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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http: //books .google .com/I 4«» i ^ -Id V \A FlJJ^eOVED GRAMMAR l'^ -,7 «GLISH LANGUAUE. BY NOAD WEBSTER, LL D- Kntcrfd according lo the Act of CongrpsH, in tlio y*»ar 1831, by Noah Wkbstkr, in tlus Clerk's office of the DiHtrict Court of Connecticut. P II !•: I-^ A € K . Tin: nrili-li (franwiifir.-' ni' lli'* MiMrli-li I;i!i;»i!ri'r,« npppfir to mo to !)'• v'TV imi)»rf' ct, fii:'!, in ^',i;i<' j):i«-ti''ul;irs, v«rv « rr-tiH'ni'--. f^'jnrij tin* j)iil)!i(';iti'in t,i' \\n* jrniiiiin.ir^ of Ijowtli jiii'1 l*n«'.-ti«'y, uli^ «'nlil«*{| iiin'i. «»f' till* iiiijirovi'jip'iit-", v\)ijri| liiiv** b'MMi iiri'li' mti«'«* IImj iliy.i of VViilli.^, soiiif ijiiportjiiif (iij-<*.o\«Ti«"-. Jiavo l)«'«ii iniiiif in tli»j on;.' ill of wonlx sind in tli*! (wm'^tniriion nf MMil'-n'T-!, uhirh liavn not. been iiitrofinccf] inl.o any ^rrannnar i)niili-'si;rii.'itiii|[r lh« ]mrU* of K))«"i'cli. On Miti'ri n;r nj>on tlir; Knlijcrt, tJi': yonii;r sliidciit iiiO(/tH witJi iUn Wiifils 7101/71, pruntnni^ wfjertive, verb, adverb ; words h« ii«;v<'r wiw or liuard of liflon*, us tlioy am no jiiirt cif the ('oinnion ]fin;fua<[rf! which ho hns broii uccustoinod t^j iih(*; nnd words whirh h« ilooH ncil nndonitJind. To rfiiiody, hh fur oh iKi^sibh', this ovil, I Jiavf*, in thiH work, not only cxphiinrid tJii; tochniciLl t<*rni.s, but hn\o ijH«;d olhr»r toniw, with tlKfm, wliich hctvo iih inliTjin-'lors of lh«* wordH cotiiiiionly iiwjd. TIic;mo inti.Tpnsiiii^ wordn art! nioro «'Jisily undorstorid, iind Hoint; r)f thciii an* nion.' Hlrictly corn'ci, or boi.t«'r n(hi|)t(;d to oxproHS tJicir trno Hi^nifiratioii. 'J hiiH for mmti^ tho Knirlish wi>rr! namf. is oHon nsod ; u word which i»vc»ry chih! nndor- hlajidM. Thin accords with the? pra(rticc; of thn nations on th*; con- tinent of Knropr». For promntn, tin; word avhulllulv. or rtprestnta- tint W BoiiietiniOH iisrid ; for wvoral cd* thrj words ralh'd pronouns urc! oflon nH«!d in Iho jibico of Hfnienrfs^ or th»'y rofor t.«i tbom. jHtribuh is a word hotter iiiHlorstood tli!iiifi//;Vf7 ire; tiioii::rh it uoro to bo wishod, wi* coiibl find a iiioro frniiiliar t^.Tin for that cbis^^ of vord-t. For r/.7/v//;, I tAhni uu) vtodifur ; a toriii ninch want«r! to donot*! cortain wonls wliich havo t.h«} nsos of difloront part.-? of Hpooch. Thus viosi aiiil r'ry, whii'h arc adjcctJvo.s, aro idb-n n.u'd uH ndvorbs ; ns in tho phnisos most wiso, rrn/ ^rood. If \vf; call tho word-«, in siu*h phraso.--, adrrrha^ th, 217. "j9 has an indefinite signification and moans on/', with'some reference to more." — Johnson's Diet. Grawm>ir. Lowih*s fntroduetion. But let us try this rule. Harris wrote, or rather compiled from Qreek grammarians, "A Philosophical Inquiry concetiivu^\3Tivs* anger Festeth in the bosom of fools." The definitive a is used before plural names, preceded by few or many — as, a few days, a great many persons.* It is also used before any collective word, as, a dozen, a hundred, even when such words are attached to plural nouns ; as, a hundred years. It is remarkable that a never precedes many without the intervention of great between them — but follows many, standing between this word and a name — and what is equally mar." — Johnson compiled " ^ Dictionary of the English Languaffe."— Lowth wrote '' ^ Short Introduction to English Grammar." — David left a flouri Aing kingdom to Solomon. Now I request some of the gentlemen, who teach the rules of these Grammars, to inform the world whether a, in the passages recited, denotes one thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate. Chares erected a huge Colossus at Rhodes — Romulus built a city in Italy and called it Rorne — Great Britain has a navy superior to any on the ocean — Loye to God is an indispensable duty — Virgil composed en epic poem — ^The Earl of Chatham was em eminent statesman--Oxygen is a substance which forms acids — the carbonic acid is a combination of oxygen and carbon — The air is an invisible elastic fluid — Lisbon was de- ■troyed by an earthquake in 1755— that is, according to our grammars, anyearthqua/cey uncertain which. The history of this word is briefly this, jfii and one are the same word — any the Saxon or English orthography, and one a corruption of the French un or une. The Greek en, the Latin unvjty that is, im with the usual ending of adjectives, and the Saxon an or ane, are mere dia- lectical differences of orthography, as are the German ein and the Dutch ten. Before the Conquest, an was used in computation or numberinff — an, twa, threo— one, two, three, &c. ; and the n was used before articu- lations, as well as before vowels — ** Ac him ssed hyra an" — But to him ■aid one of them. — Jilfred Orosius, lib. 6. 30. " An cyning" — one king. 8az. Chron. p. 82. This word was also varied to express case and gen- der, like tlie Latin unus. " And thtrs ymb anne monath" — And within this one month — Sax. Chron. 82. <' The on tham amtm leipe waeron" — ^Who were in that one ship. — ihm. 98. An therefore is the original English adjective or ordinal number one; and was never written a nntil after the Conquest. ^ ^ * The origin of this use of a before many is to be sought in the prim- itive character of many, which was a noun in the Gotliic and Saxon, ly* nonymous with mvltitude. Jl many was therefore correct. Its use ai an attribute is secondary or derivative ; but this uae carrieB with it the deSniU're a, in anomalouf phrasea. or THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 15 singular, many, the rerj essence of which is to mark plu- rality, will, with a intervening, agree with a name in the singular number ; as, '* Full many a gem of purest ray serene." Oray. " Where many a rose bud rears its blushing head." JBeaitie* RULE III. The definitive the is employed before names, to limit their signification to one or more specific things of the kind, dis- criminated from others of the same kind. Hence the per- son or thing is understood by the reader or hearer ; as, the twelve Apostles, the laws of morality, the rules of good breeding. This definitive is also used with names of things which exist alone, or which we consider as single ; as, the Jews, the Sun, the Globe, the Ocean ; and also before words when used by way of distinction ; as, the Church, the Temple. RULE IV. The is used rhetorically before a name in the singular number, to denote the whole species, or an indefinite num- ber ; aSy " the Jig-tree putteth forth her green figs." — SoL Songs, ** The almond-tree shall flourish, and the grasshopper shall be a burden." — " Or ever the silver cord shall be loosed— or the golden bowl be broken," 6lc, — Ecclesiastes. " There loaded camels move in solemn state, And the huge elephanVs unwieldy weight." Hooters Tasso, b. 15. *' For here the splendid treasures of the mine, And richest offspring of the field combine." Lusiad, 2. " The Christian, who, with pious horror, avoided the abom- mations of the circus or the theatre, found himself encom- passed' with infernal snares," &.C. — Gib. Rom. Emp. ch. 15. " The heart likes naturally to be moved and affected."«- CktmpbeUs Rhet. ch. 2. KoT> 1.— This definitiTe is aUo used before names employed figora- fively in a general sense ; as, " Hie mates their safety to th^ waive$ conugp." UumA^SU i 16 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR Here waves cannot be understood of any particalar teaves ; but the word is a metaphor for a particular thing, the ocean. In addresses and exclamations^ the definitive may be, and usual! j is, omitted ; as, " Sink down, ye mountains, and, ye valleys, rise." " Be smooth, ye rocks ; ye rapid floods, give way." Pope, Mes, ** Granville commands; your aid, O Muses, bring." Wind. Forest, Note 2. — The definitive the is used before an attribute, which is se- lected from others belonging to tlie same object ; as, " The very frame of spirit proper for bein^ diverted with the Utughahle in objects, is so dif> ferent from that which is necessary for philosophizing on them."—- Campbellf Rhet. 1. 2. NUMBER. As men have occasion to speak of a single object, or of two or more individuals of the same kind, it has been found necessary to vary the noun or name, and usually the termi- nation, to distinguish plurality from unity. The diflferent forms of words to express one or more are called in gram- mar, numbers ; of which there are, in English, two, the siri' gular and ihe plural. The singular denotes an individual, or a collection of individuals united in a body ; as, a man, a ship, an office, a company, a society, a dozen. The plural denotes two or more individuals, not considered as a collec- tive body ; as, men, ships, offices, companies, societies. The plural number is formed by the addition of 5 or es to the singular. Rule 1. When the terminating letter of a noun will ad- mit the sound of s to coalesce with the name or the last syl- lable of it, 5 only is added to form the plural ; as, sea, seas ; hand, hands ; pen, pens ; grape, grapes ; vale, vales ; vow, TOWS. 2. When the letter s does not combine in sound with the word or last syllable of it, the addition of 5 increases the number of syllables; as, house, houses; grace, graces; P*g6> pages ; rose, roses ; voice, voices ; maze, mazes. 3. When the name ends in x, ss, sh, or ch with its English sound, the plural is formed by adding es to the singular ; for a single s after those letters cannot be pronounced ; as, fox, foxes ; glass, glasses ; brush, brushes; church, churches. But after ck with its Greek sound, like k, the plural is Cbim- ed by s only ; as monarch, monarchs. 4. When a name ends with y after a consonant, the plu- ral is formed by dropping y and addmg ies ; as, vanity, van* JtJes, Aikali has a regular plural, alkiSies. or THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 17 But after ay, ey, and oy^ s only is added ; as delay, delays; valley, valleys; joy, joys; money, moneys. NoTE'l. — We ■ometimes ■co valley, chimney, money, journey, and a few others, with like terminations, written in tne plural with td# — val- lios, chimnies, &c. But this irregularity is not to be vindicated. Either the singular number should be written vtUbj^ or the plural valleyt. The latter is preferable.* None 2. — A few English nouns deviate fVom tlie foregoing rules in the formation of the plural number : — Class 1. In some names, y in the singular is, for the con- venience of utterance, changed into v ; as, life knife wife leaf calf lives knives wives leaves calves self half beef elf loaf selves halves beeves elves loaves sheaf shelf wolf wharf thief sheaves shelves wolves wharves thieves Class 2. The second class consists of words which are used in both numbers, with plurals irregularly formed ; as. child foot tooth man woman ox louse goose beau thesis children feet teeth men women oxen lice ffeese beaux theses hypothesis brother penny die pea criterion focus radius index calx phenomenon hypotheses brothers or brethren pennies or pence dies or dice peas or pease criterions or criteria focuses or foci radiuses or radii indexes or indices calxes or calces phenomena emphasis emphases antithesis antitheses Pennies is used for real coins ; pence for their value in computation. — Dies denotes stamps for coining ; dice^ pieces used in games. — Peas denotes the seeds as dintinct objects r pease the seeds in a mass.— JBrof A^rs is the plural used in I . I * The chaaffe of y into ie# to form the plural number, may seem to a Ibraigner an ood irregularity ; but the cause is verj^ obvious. Formerly tbe pn*gwl«y nnmber of this class of words ended with ie ; as jj^lorie, van- hiey energi^y and the addition of « made the plural ^/am#. Biit whether from oapnoe. negligence, or a desire to simplify the orthography, the termination m was laid aside for ^ in the singular, while the old plural ies was letained. A etrange inconsistency, but by no meani the oul^ onib wldsh the p r o gi ew of our language exhibits* / 18 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR common discourse ; brethren, in the scripture style, but is not restricted to it. Cherubim and seraphim are real Hebrew plurals ; but such is the propensity in men to form regular inflections in language, that these words are used as in the singular, with regular plurals, cherubims, seraphims. In like manner, the Hebrew singulars, cherub and seraph, have obtained regular plurals. The influence of this principle is very obvious in other foreign words, which the sciences have enlisted into our ser- vice ; as may be observed in the words radius, focus, index^ &LC, which now begin to be used with regular English plural terminations. This tendency to regularity is, by all means, to be encouraged ; for a prime excellence in language is the uniformity of its inflections. The facts here stated will be evinced by a few authorities. ** Vesiculated corallines are found adhering to rocks, shells and yMCMSC5." — Encyc. art. Corallines. " Many fetuses are deficient at the extremities." — Dor, Zoon. Sect, 1, 3, 9. " Five hundred denariuses," — Baker's Livy, 4. 491. ** The radiations of that tree and its fruit, the principal ^o- cuses of which are in the Moldavia islands." — Hunter^s St. Pierre, vol. 3. *' The reduction of metallic calxes into metals." — Ency, art. Metallurgy, See also Mediums, Campbell's Rhetoric, 1, 150; Cblyxes, Darwin's Zoon. 1 74 ; Caudexes, Phytologia, 2, 3 ; Irises, Zoon. 1. 444 ; Reguhises and residmims. — Encyc. art Meted, In authorities equally respectable, we find stamens, strO" turns, funguses ; and in pursuance of the principle, we may expect to see lamens for laminae ; lamels for lamellae ; haryte for barytes ; pyrite for pyrites ; strontite for stron- tites ; stalactites for the plural stalactites. These reforms are necessary to enable us to distinguish the liiigular from the plural number. Class 3. The third class of irregulars consists of iueh as have no plural termination; some of which represent . ideas of things which do not admit of plurality ; as, rye, barley, Bax, hemp, flour, slolh, pride, pitchy and the names OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 19 of metals, gold, silver, tin, zink, antimony, lead, bismuth, quicksilver. When, in the progress of improvement, any thing, considered as not susceptible of plurality, is found to have varieties, which are distinguishable, this distinction gives rise to a plural of the term. Thus in early ages our ancestors took no notice of different varieties of wheat, and the term had no plural. But modern improvements in ag- riculture have recognized varieties of this grain, which have given the name a plural form. The same remark is appli- cable to fern, clay, marl, sugar, cotton, &c. which have plu- rals, formerly unknown. Other words may hereafter under- go a similar change. Other words of this class denote plurality, without a plu- ral termination ; as, cattle, sheep, swine, kine, deer, hose ; trout, salmon, carp, perch, and many other names of fish. Fish has a plural, but is used in the plural sense without the 4 termination; as, ^ " We are to blame for eating these fishP Anacharsis, 6. 272. ** T\iejish reposed in seas and crystal floods. The beasts retired in covert of the woods." Hoole, T. 2. 726. Cannon , shot and sail, are used in a plural sense ; as, ^ *' One hundred ctmnon were landed from the fleet." • Burchett, Naval Hist. 732. " Several shot being fired." — Ibm, 455. " Several sail of ships." — Ibm. 426. In the sense in which these words are here used, they bardly admit of a plural ending. Under this class may be noticed a number of words, ex- pressing time, distance, measure, weight and number, which, though admitting a plural termination, are often, not to say generall}^ used without that termination, even when used ' with attributes of plurality ; such are the names in these ex- pressions, two year, five mile, ten foot, seven pound, three tun, hundred, thousand, or million, five bushel, twenty weight, &c. Yet the most unlettered people never say, two minute, three hour, five day, or week, or month ; nor two inch, yard or league; nor three ounce, g;t^iL) ^i^ccck^ot ^<5i*.* 80 AN IMPROYSD ORAMMAB We observe this practice in the Saxon Chronicle. " Ho heold that Arcebisceop-rice 18 year." — p. 69. He held that archbishopric eighteen year. In that work, winter is used in the same manner ; forty'One winter — ^p. 41. Yet year and winter had, in the Saxon, plural terminations. But tliis use is considered as vulgar. A like singularity is observable in the Latin language. " Tritici quadraginta millia modium." — Liv, Uh, 26. 47. For- ty thousand modium of wheat. '* Quatuor millia pondo auh," fimr thousand pound of gold. — Ibm, 27. 10. Here we see the origin of our pound. Originally it was merely weight — four thousand of gold hy weight. From denoting weight generally, pondo became the term for a cer- tain division or quantity ; retaining however its signification of unity, and becoming an indeclinable in Latin. Twenty pound then, in strictness, is twenty divisions hy weight ; or, as we say, with a like abbreviation, twenty weight. The words horse, foot and infantry, comprehending bod- ies of soldiers, are used as plural nouns, and followed by verbs in the plural. iJavaJry is sometimes used in like man- ner. Class 4. The fourth class of irregular nouns consists of words which have the plural termination only. Some of these, denoting plurality, are always joined with verbs in the plural ; as the following : Annals drawers archives downs ashes dregs embers assets bitters entrails bowels fetters compasses clothes filinn croods Hatches calends breeches ides lees Inngs shears matms scissors mallows shainbles orgies tidings nippers tongs pincers or thanks pinchers vespers pleiads vitals tnafierf victnalf Letters, in the sense of literature, may be added to the foregoing list. Manners, in the sense of hehaoior^ is also /Jural. Other words of this class, though ending in 5, are uaed either wholly in the singular numb&T, oi Va \b& o\i« oi ^^ other, at the pleasure of the writer. OT THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 21 Amends alms wa^. billiards bellows fives ffallows sessions odds measles means pains news hysterics physics ethics riches optics comes catoptrics dioptrics acoustics pneumatics statics statistics spherics tactics economics mathematics mechanics hydraulics hydrostatics analytics politics Of these, pains, riches, and wages* are more usually con- sidered as plural — news is always singular — odds and means are either singular or plural — the others are more strictly singular ; for measles is the name of a disease, and, in strict- ness, no more plural than gout or fever. Small pox, for pocks, is sometimes considered as a plural, but it ought to be used as singular. Billiards has the sense of game, con- taining unity of idea ; and ethics, physics and other similar names, comprehending each the whole system of a particu- lar science, do not convey the ideas of parts or particular branches, but of a whole collectively, a unity, and hence seem to be treated as words belonging to the singular num- ber. Authorities, Pre-eminent by so much odds. — 3filt. P. L, 4. 474. With every odds thy prowess I defy. — Hoole, Tas, 6. 19. 40. Where the odds is considerable. — Camp, Rhet, ch. 5. The wages of sin is death. — Bible. Much pains has been taken. — Enfield, Hist. Phil. ch. 2. Let a gallows be made of fifty cubits high. — Bible. Here he erected a fort and a gallows. — Lusiad, 1. 134. The riches we had in England was the slow result of long industry and wisdom, and is to be regained, &c. — Davenant, 2. 12. Mathematics informs us. — Encyc. art. Strength of Mate- rials, Politics is the art of producing individual good by gen eral measures. — Beddoes* Hygeia, 2. 79. PoUiics contains two parts. — Locke, vol. 2. 408. Locke however uses a plural verb with ethics. " TVia ideas that ethics are conversant abowl." — ^B. \. VX.'^i. • Originally toagis^ and te«\\y wn^*^**' 32 AS IMPBOYE]) ORAMMAB \ Pains, when preceded by much, should always have a singular verb. Means is so generally used in either number, (every means, all means, this means, and these means,) that authorities in support of the usage are deemed superfluous. GENDER. Gender, in grammar, is a difference of termination, to ex- press distinction of sex. There being two sexes, male and female, words which denote males are said to be of the masculine gender ; those which denote females, of feminine gender. Words ex- pressing things without sex, are said to be of neuter gender. There arc therefore but two genders ; yet for convenience, the neuter is classed with the genders ; and we say there are three, the masculine, feminine and neuter. The English modes of distinguishing sex are these : 1. The regular termination of the feminine gender is ess ; which is added to the name of the masculine ; as, lion, lion- ess. But when the word ends in or, the feminine is formed by retrenching a vowel, and blending two syllables into one ; as, actor, actress. In a few words, the feminine gender is represented by iz; as, testatrix, from testator ; and^a few oth- ers are irregular. The following are most of the words which have a distinct termination for the feminine gender : Actor abbot adulterer baron benefactor governor hero heir peer priest poet prince prophet shepherd lorcercr tutor instructor traitor count 2. In many instances, animals, wiiYi viYAcV n«^ Vw^ t&Mfic frequent occaaioDa to be conveTftanl, \ia^« d\i&x«QX iiQtx^ \ft actress deacon deaconess abbess duke duchess adultress embassador cmbassadress baroness emperor empress benefactress tiger tigress governess heroine songster songstress seamster seamstress heiress viscount viscountess peeress jew lion Jewess lioness priestess poetess master mistress princess marquis marchioness prophetess patrton patroness shepherdess protector protectress sorceress executor executrix tutoress testator testatrix instructress elector electress traitress administrator administratrix counte§B I OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 23 express the different sexes ; as, man and woman ; brother and sister ; uncle and aunt ; son and daughter ; boy and girl ; father and mother ; horse and mare ; bull and cow. Man however is a general term for the whole race of mankind ; so also, horse comprehends the whole species. A law to restrain every man from an offence would compre- hend women and boys ; and a law to punish a trespass com- mitted by any horsey would comprehend all mares and colts. In like manner, goose^ though originally the name of the fe- male, is used generally for the whole species ; as is the plural geese. 3. When words have no distinct termination for the female sex, the sexes are distinguished by prefixing some word indi- cating sex ; as, a male rabbit, a female opossum ; a he goat, a she goat ; a man servant, a maid servant ; a male coquet ; a female warrior ; a cock-sparrow, a hen-sparrow. 4. In all cases, when the sex is sufficiently indicated by a separate word, names may be used to denote females with- out a distinct termination. Thus, although females are rare- ly soldiers, sailors, philosophers, mathematicians, or chimists, | and we seldom have occasion to say, she is a soldier, or an astronomer; yet there is not the least impropriety in the application of these names to females, when they possess the requisite qualifications ; for the sex is clearly marked by the word she or female, or the appropriate name of the woman ; as, " Joan of Arc was a warrior.*' ** The Amazons were a nation of female warriors." — Ency, art, Amazons,* 6. Although the English language is philosophically cor- rect in considering things without life as of neither gender, yet by an easy analogy, the imagination conceives of inani- mate things as animated and distinguished by sex. On this fiction, called personification, depends much of the descrip- tive force and beauty of poetry. " Indus or Ganges rolling his broad wave." Akenside. " There does the soul Consent her soaring fancy to restrain." Ibm, * The termination or in Latin is acontracl\oiio^'»eT,^Ts«ti% -^a «t ^sv Engliah is of wer, the same word in Saxon. ^\x\. Vcv c.o\wKvatv \«A«^- Ktanding, the idea of gender is hardly altacViedlo\>[ift«a\RTxsi\xv^>A^'*N/|^ we adder to words to denote an agent mtbout Yv^^-, ^,^^\Bt,\«s»» * $24 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR ? ft t( Now morn, her rosy steps in th' eastern clime Advancing — " Jidilton, P. L. b. 5. The north-east spends his rage.'' JTiomson, CASE. Case in grammar denotes a variation of words to express the relation of things to each other. In English, most of the relations are expressed by separate words ; but the rela* tion of property, ownership or possession, is expressed by adding 5 to a name, with an apostrophy ; thus, John's book ; which words are equivalent tS " the book of John." This is called the Possessive Case. In English therefore names have two cases only, the nominative or simple name, and the possessive. The nominative before a verb, and the o&- jective after a verb, are not distinguished by inflections, and are to be known only by position or the sense of the pas- sage. When the letter 5, added as the sign of the possessive, will coalesce with the name, it is pronounced in the same syllable ; as, John*s. But* if it will not coalesce, it adds a syllable to the word ; as, Thomas's bravery, pronounced as / if written TTiomasis — ^the church's prosperity, churchis prosperity. These examples show the impropriety of re- trenching the vowel; but it occasions no inconvenience to natives. ; When words end in es or ss, the apostrophy is added without e ; as, on eagles' wings ; for righteousness' sake. i PRONOUNS OR SUBSTITUTES. Substitutes or pronouns are of two kinds ; those which are used in the place of the names of persons only, and may be called personal; and those which represent names, at- tributes, a sentence or part of a sentence, or a series of pro- positions. The pronouns which are appropriate to persons, are, I^ thou, you, he, she, we, ye, and who. / is used by a speaker to denote himself, and is called the ^rst person of the singular number. When a speaker includes others w\\!K \ivreiwi\^^>aft ^aa»& kbc* TIiJs ia the ^rst person of the plural uum\)ei. or THB ENGLISH LANGUAGE. S6 ^ t Thou and you represent the person addressed — thou in X solemn discourse, and f^ou, in common language.* These H are the second person. In the plural, ye is used in solemn / style, and you in familiar language. / lie represents the name of a male, and she, that of a fe- male, who is the subject of discourse, but not directly ad- dressed. These are called the third person. ( ■ ■ ■ ■■ *A8 you was originally in the plural number, ^ainmarians insist that it must still be restrictea to that number. But national usage rejects the arbitrary principle. The true principle, on which all language is built, rejects it. What fundamental rule have wc to dispose of words, but this, that when a word signifies oTte, or unity ^ it belongs to the singular num- ber ? If a word, once exclusively plural, becomes, by uni versal use, the •i^ of individuality , it must take its place in the singular number. That this is a fact with you, is proved by national usage. To assign the sub- stitute to its verb, is to invert the order of things. The verb must follow its nominative — if that denotes unity, so does the verb. " When ijfou was at Athens, you attended the scliools of the philoio* pheri." — Cicero, Tuse. Qjuest. Trans, b. 2. " On that happy day when you was given to the world." — Dodd*s MassUlon, Serm, 1. « Unless you vhu ill."— BonoeUV Life of J. M, G8. <' You iDoa on the spot where your enemy was found killed." — Gti» thrit^s (^uinetiUanf b. 2. ** You was in hopes to have succeeded to the inheritance." — Jhm, b. 6. " When you was here comforting me " — Pope's Let. <' I am as well as when you was here." — Gay's Let to Sw\ft, " Why toas you glad ?" — BosweWs Life of Johnson, These writers did not commit mistakes in the use of the verb afler you — they wrote the language as established by national usiige — the founda- tion of all language. So is the practice in tlie United Staters — not mere- ly popular usage, though this, when general, is respectable authority ; but the practice of men of letters. " Where was you standing during the transaction ?" '* How far was you from the defendant ?" " How far was you from the parties V —Judge Parker. Trial cf Set fridge, p. 53. << Was you acquainted with the defendant at college ?" — Mr. Dexter, Ibm. p. 60. ** Was you there when the pistol was fired?" — Jlfr. Oore. Ibm, CO. " Was you in the office ?"— w?«. Gen. Ibm, G8.* ' Tliis use of was i$ from the Gothic d\alecl\ >aM\. v\.\» Y^'swSa:^^ ^^^ correct 3 86 AN IMPBOTED GRAMXAB It is a substitute for the name of any thing of the neater gender in the third person, and for. a sentence. They is a substitute for the names of persons or things^ and forms the third person of the plural number. Who is a relative or a personal pronoun, used to intro- duce a new clause or affirmation into a sentence, which clause has an immediate dependence on the preceding one.* Who is also used to ask questions, and hence it is called an interrogative. Which is also a relative, but is of neater gender. It is^ also interrogative. These pronouns have two cases; the nominative which precedes a verb, and the objective which follows it. They are inflected in the following manner : Nominative Objective Sing, It me Phi. we us Nom. • Obj. . Sing. ' • she . • her Plu. they them Nom. - • Obj. . . - thou - thee ye you Nom. • Obj. . • it - . it they them Nom. - - Obj. - . - you - you yoo you Nom. • Obj. • - who - • whom who whom Nom. - - Obj. . - . he - him they them NoTK. — MiiUf tAme, hi$f kerSf yours and tkdrs, tre atumlly consid- •red as the vosseMdv ease. But the three fint are' either attributee, and used with nouns, or they are substitutes. The three last are al wavs substitutes, used in the place of names which are understood, as may be •een in the note below.; * Who is called a reUtUve, because it rsUUss to an antecedent. But this u also true of A«, jAs, tktiyf and most of the substitutes They all relate to the words which they represent. ^Me is also used in the nominative, in popular practice — it is me. This is condemned as bad English ; but in reality is an original idiom of the languaflre, received from Uie primitive Celtic inhabitants of England and Fisnce, in whose laniniaire mi was the nominative case of the first - ^ ^- word, from f^fF^^ c««e, la demonatraBle ; for they axe coii%\axiV\N laaa^ %a ^iofc ^otoe^ '"^vet to verba, and ui the objecUTea aftai YCi^jaiaA^aVOKi^asaa^^Na^ or THX BNOLI8H LANOUAOC. 81 its and whose have a better claim to be considered aa a poaieasivv case ; but as they equally well fall under the denomination of attributes, 1 have, for the sake of uniformity, assigned them a place with that part of speech. But it must be observed, that although it and who are real substitutes, never united to names, like attributes — it day — who man ; yet its ana whose cannot be detached from a name expressed or implied ; as, its shape — its figure — whose face — whose works — whose are tney ? that if, whose works ? These are therefore real attributes. In the use of substitutes, it is to be remarked, that /, thou, you, ye and toe are generally employed without an antece« dent name. When / and the name of the person are both employed, as they are in formal writings, oaths and the like, the following passages : " Whether it could perform its operations of thinking and memory out of a body organized as ours is. — Lockej b. 2. 27. ** In referring our ideas to those of other men called by the same name, ours may be false.^^ — *^ It is for no other reason but that Ai^ agrees not with our ideas.'' — Ibm. ch. 32. 9 and 10. " You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was."" — Bacon. Unity in Religion. ** He ran headlong into his own ruin whilst he endeavored to precip- itate ours.'' — Bolingoroke. Let. to Windham. " The reason is, that his subject is generally things ; theirs, on the contrary, is persons'." Camp. Rhet. b. 1. ch. 10. " Yours of the 2()th Oct. I have received, as I have always done yours f with no little satisfaction." — JVycherley to Pope. " Therefore leave your forest of beasts for ours of brutes, called men." -—Ibm. " These return so much better out of your hands than they went from mine." — Ibm. " Your letter of the 20th of this month, like the rest of yovrs — tells me with so much more wit, sense and kindness than mine can express," &c. — Ibm. " Having good works enough of your own besides to ensure yours and their immortality." — Ibm. ** The omission of repetitions is but one, and the easiest part oi^ yours and of my design." — Pope to Wycherley. " My sword and yonrs>^te kin." — Shaltspeare. It is needless to multiply proofs. We observe these pretended poS' sessives uniformly used as nominatives or objectives. To say that, in these passages, ours, yours, theirs^ and mine form a possessive case, is to make the possessive perform the office of a nominative case to verbs, and an objective case aner verbs and prepositions — a ma.\v\fe%\.%c\si^Sassk., Should it be said that a noun is utvAeiaXjooA \ \ w^^^ ^^vsa c^^^^n-^^^ true, in regard to the grammatical conalTUcVVou \ ^oi ^vx^v"^^ '^^J^'^ ^^^*^tj wbioh the word if a substitute, and the Tpioiiowu m>aaX'^ Oo».^'i^^ 28 AN IMPROTED ORAMIffAB the pronouns precede the name ; as, " I, Richard Roe, Boston." In similar language, you and we also precede name ; as, ** You, John I>oe, of New York." " We, Ricl Roe, and John Doe, of Philadelphia." You is used by writers very indefinitely, as a substitute any person who may read the work — the mind of the wi imagining a person addressed. He and they are used in the same indefinite manner^; " He seldom lives frugally, who lives by chance." * ed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted." He and they, in such sentences, represent any pei who fall within the subsequent description. Who and lohom are always substitutes for persons ^ never for things or brutes. Whose is equally applicable^ persons as to things.t an adjective. " Yours of the 26th of October," becomes yottr U ** he endeavored to precipitate ovrsj'* becomes our ruin. This i that the words are real substitutes, like otherSy where it stands for men or things. Besides, in three passages, just quoted, the word yours is joined conni'ctive to a name in tne same case : ^* To ensure yours and thtir mortality J** "The easiest pnrt of yours and of my design.^* ", sword and yours are kin." Will any person pretend that the connc here joins different cases .? Another consideration is equally decisive of this question. If ^ .^ * ours^ &c. are real possessives, then the same word admits of two 3ii ent signs of the case ; for we say correctlj'^, " an acquaintance of i^oiirf^<| ours J or theirs'' — of being the sign of the possessive ; but if the words^ in themselves are possessives, tlien there nmst be two signs of tlie sams case, which is absurd.* Compare these words with a name in the possessive case — ^^ My boon is on a hill; my father's is on a plain." Here father's is a real posse*- sive case ; the word house being understood ; and the addition of tha noun makes no alteration in the word father's ; " my father's is,'* or " my father's house is." * This case does not compare with that of names. We say, " a soldier of the kind's" — or a soldier of the king's soldiers — but we cannot say, *^ an acquaintance of your's acquaintance." t " Whose is rather the poetical, than the regular genitive of which.** '■Johnson. Lowth also condemns the use of whose^ in the neuter gen* der, citing, at the same time, the most rospectable authorities for thii use — Dryden, Milton and Addison. " The question whose solution I re- quire" — " the tree who.^e mortal taste." — But these critics seem not to have penetrated to the bottom of tliis usage. The truth is. ir/to and its inffectiona are a part of ihc primitive language. The Latin ^ui, cuij quo, ^^f^re the EngUah who — quern and quod we tohom wvd lokal — tujut ^nose. The /Scots formerly wrote ^ului, quiiat ; Vtvfi^^xsiiA^UMMi.-^ OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29 Whoever is oflen employed as the nominative to two verbs ; as, " Wlioever expects to find in the scriptures a spe- cific direction for every moral doubt that arises, looks for more than he will meet with.*' — Palcy, Phil, ch, 4. Mine, thine and his are equally well used as substitutes, or as attributes. ** The silver is mine, and the gold is mine" — Hoff. 2. 8. " The day is thine, the night also is thine.'* — Ps. 74. 16. " The Lord knoweth them that are At5."— 2 Tim. 2. 19. In these examples, the words mine, thine, his, may be considered as substitutes. — ** The silver is mine/' that is, m^ silver. In this character, the words usually follow the verb ; but when erophatical, they may precede it ; as, " His will I be." — 2 Sam. 16. 18. " Thine, O Lord, is the greatness, the pow- er and the glory."— 1 Ch. 29. 11. " Thine is the kingdom.''* These words are also used as attributes of possession ; as, " Let not mine enemies triumph." " So let thine enemies perish." " And Abram removed his tent." Mine and thine are however not thus used in familiar language ; but in sol- emn and elevated style, they are still used as attributes. ** Mine eyes beheld the messenger divine." — Lusiad, b. 2. Tlie Germans still use wer, wessen, wem ; the Dutch, wie, toiena, vnen. In a fragment of the Laws of Numa, ctnus is spelt quoins — We have this word in whose. From the time of Numa, at least, this genitive hai been of all genders, and I believe, remains so, in all branches of the Teutonic. It is better classed with adjectives or attributes, like his. * In addition to the proofs already alleged, that these words are not a possessive case, according to the usual acceptation of the word, we may remark, that wine, thine and his, in the passages used in the text, do not stand in the place of, of me, of thee, of him. The silver is of me, the gold is of me, the day is of thee, the Lord knoweth them that are of him, do not convey the same ideas, as the present form of expression. Q^in these expressions, would rather imply proceeding from. Besides, the same words admit the sign of the possessive ; as, ** And the man of thine, whom I shall not cut off from mme altar." — 1 Sam. 2. 33. ** Sing to the Lord, all ye saints of hhr—Ps. 30. 4. " He that heareth these sayings of mine."— Matt. 7. When we sav, " a soldier of tiie king's," we mean one of the kind's soldiers ; and in the passage here cited from Samuel, " the man of thme" has a like sense — " the man of thy and are evidently _ ^ possible to resolve these passages, witV\0M\. coTv»\^^t\Tv^m\'a*>\K>tw, "^^ iis as aubstitutea, in the same cose, a* tha noutui '^>^^'^^^^®*^ npreaent 3* 80 AN IMPBOTED ORAMMAR There is another class of substitutes, which supply the place of names, attributes, sentences or parts of a sentence. It. In the following sentence, it is the substitute for a name. " The sun rules the day; it illumines the earth ;" here it is used for sun^ to prevent a repetition of the word. In the following passage, it has a different use : '' The ^ Jews, it is well known, were at this time under the dominion of the Romans." — Porteus, Lect. 8. Here it represents the • whole of the sentence, except the clause in which it stands. To understand this, let the* order of the words be varied. '' The Jews were at this time under the dominion of the Ro- mans, it [all that] is well known." '' It is a testimony as glorious to his memory, as it is sin- gular, and almost unexampled in his circumstances, thai he loved the Jewish nation^ and that he gave a very decisive proof of t7, by building them a synagogue." — Ibm, To discover what is represented by the first it, we must inquire. What is a glorious testimony ? ' Why, clearly, that he loved the Jewish nation, and gave them a decisive proof of it, by building them a synagogue. It then is a substitute for those clauses of the sentence. The second it refers to the same clauses. In the latter part of the sentence, he gave a magnificent proof of it — of what? of what is related in a pre- ceding clause — he loved the Jewish nation— of that he gave a decisive and magnificent proof. Here it represents that member of the sentence. *' As for tlie pulling of them down, if the affairs require •I." — Bacon on Ambition, Require what? "The pulling of them down" — for which part of the sentence t^ is a sul^ stitute. " Shall worldly glory, impotent and vain. That fluctuates like the billows of the main ; Shall this with more respect thy bosom move Than zeal for crowns that never fade above 1 Avert it, heaven !" — Hoole*s Tasso, 6. 5. Avert what ? All that is expressed in the four preceding lines, for all which it is a substitute. "And how couXd, he do this so effectually, as by perform- wg works, which it utterly exceeded «\\ x\ie ^Xx^tk^vJck ^wd ^bUitj of men to accomplish."— Portcus, Lect. ^, OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 31 What utterly exceeded ? To what does it refer ? Let us invert the order of the words — " as by performing works, to accomplish which exceeded all the strength of men." Here we find to accomplish, a verb in the infinitive, is the nomina- tive to exceeded, and for that verb, it is a substitute. This inceptive use of it forms a remarkable idiom of our language, and deserves more particular illustration. It stands as the substitute for a subsequent member or clause of a sen- tence, and is a sort of pioneer to smooth the way for the verb. Thus, " It is remarkable, that the philosopher Seneca tt makes use of the same argument." — Porteus, Lect. 6. If • we ask, What is remarkable ? the answer must be. The fact stated in the last clause of the sentence. That this is the real construction, appears from a transposition of the clauses, - " The philosopher Seneca makes use of the same argument, that is remarkable." In this order we observe the true use of that f which is also a substitute for the preceding clause of the sentence, and it becomes redundant. The use then of the inceptive it, appears to be to enable us to begin a sen- tence, without placing a verb as the introductory word ; and by the use of it and that as substitutes for subsequent mem- bers of the sentence, the order is inverted without occasion- ing obscurity. It is to be noticed also that this neuter substitute it, is equally proper to begin sentences, when the name of a per'» son is afterwards used ; as, ** It was John who exhibited such powers of eloquence." But if we transpose the words, and place who or that, the substitute which begins a new clause, next after the inceptive word, we must use he for the incep- tive — " He, who or thtU exhibited such powers of eloquence, was John." In interrogative sentences, the order of words is changed, and it follows the verb. Who is it that has been thus elo- quent ? There is a sentence in Locke, in which the inceptive it, is omitted, " Whereby comes to pass, that, as long as any un- easiness remains in the mind." — J3. ch. 21. In strictness, this is not a defective sentence, for that may be considered as the nominative to comes — Whereby that comes to pass which follows. Or the whole subsequent sentence may be consid- ered as the nominative — for a\V \.\\^\. cota»^ Vo ^^sa. "^^asv. the use of the inceptive it is so iuW^ fts\.«XX\^>Bfc^ ^^ ^Cw^ "^"^J^ idiom, of language, that its omVsaiou *\^ xlo\. \.o \s^ ^vttO^K•'^ 82 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR This and thaty these and those, TJiis and that are either definite attributes or substitutes. As attributes, they are used to specify individuals, and dis- tinguish them from others ; as, " This my son was dead and is alive again." ** Certainly this was a righteous man." ** The end of that man is peace." ** Woe to that man by whom the Son of man is betrayed." J^is and that have plurals, these and those. The general distinction between this and that, is, this de- notes an object to be present or ilear in time or place ; that^ to be absent. But this distinction is not always observed. In correspondence however with this distinction, when, in discourse, two things are mentioned, this and these refer to the last named, or nearest in the order of construction ; that and those to the most distant ; as, ** Self-love and reason to one end aspire, Pain their aversion, pleasure their desire ; But greedy that [self love] its object would devour, This [reason] taste the honey and not wound the flower.'' Pope, '* Some place the bliss in action, some in ease, Those call it pleasure, and contentment these," — Ibm, The poets sometimes contrast these substitutes in a simi- ' lar manner, to denote individuals acting or existing in de- tached parties ; or to denote the whole acting in various ca- pacities ; as, " 'Twas war no more, but carnage through 'the field. Those lifi their sword, and these their bosoms yield." Hook's Tasso, b. 20. '* Nor less the rest, the intrepid chief retained ; These urged by threats, and those by force constrained." Ibm. There is a peculiarity in the use of that; for when it is an attribute, it is always in the singular number ; but as a sub- stitute for persons or things, it is plural as well as singular; and is used for persons as well as things more frequently than any word in tha language ; as, ''/ knew a man' that had it fot a b^-wotd, when he saw ojen hasten to a con cl as ion, * Stay a\\t\\e,\\ia\.Yift\swj xoxdiA «/» end the sooner.' " — Bacon on DispalcK. or THE CNOLI8H LANGITAGC. 33^ Here that is the representative of man, and it stands for the last clause of the sentence or by-word. I' Let states that aim at greatness take heed how their no- bility and gentlemen multiply too fast." — Btuan, Here that is a substitute for a plural name. So also in the following. " They that are whole need not a physician, but they that are sick." " They that had eaten were about four thousand" — " they that are in the flesh" — " they that weep" — " bless them that curse you." Another very common use of this and that, is to represent a sentence or part of a sentence ; as, '' It is seldom known that, authority thus acquired is pos- sessed without insolence, or that, the master is not forced to confess that, he has enslaved himself by some foolish confi- dence." — Rambler, No, 68. In this sentence, the first that represents the next mem- ber — ** Authority thus acquired is possessed without inso- lence, that is seldom known ;" it represents the same clause. The second that represents all which follows, including two clauses or members ; the third that is the substitute for the last clause. In strictness, the comma ought always to be placed ailer that; which punctuation would elucidate the use of the substitute and the true construction ; but the prac- tice is otherwise; for that, in this and like sentences, is either a nominative or an objective. The first that in the foregoing sentence is the nominative, coinciding with it, or in apposition to it ; and when the clauses are transposed, the mceptive it, being redundant, is dropped, and that be- comes the nominative. The same remark is applicable to the second that ; the verb and first clause, it is seldom known, being understood. The third that is the objective after cou" fess. " The master has enslaved himself by some foolish confidence — he is forced to confess that — all that is seldom known." ^ Such is the true construction of sentences — the definitive that, instead of being a conjunction, is the representative of a sentence or distinct clause, preceding that clause, and pointing the mind to it, as the subject which follows. And it IS as definite or demonstrative in this application tQ««.w\fi.\v<^^^« as when it is applied to a name or T\o\]itv. The following sentence will ex\\'\\>\\. \\ve Vtwe \»^ Q>^ ^^fv. M8 a Bubstitute : '* He recited his foimet c.^\Mi\VVi^\ Va ^^^'^^ 34 AN IMPBOTKD ORAMMAR was now to be added thai he was the destroyer of the man who had expiated him." — Beloe's Herodotus, Clio, 45. According to our present grammars, that is a conjunction ; if so, the preceding verb was, has no nominative word. But the sense is, ** to which was to be added that** which is re- lated in the following words. The use and importance of this substitute are more clearly manifest, when it denotes purpose or effect ; as in this pas- sage, '* And he came and dwelt in a city called Nazareth ; that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophets. He shall be called a Nazarene." — Matt. 2. 23. Here that is equivalent to that purpose or effect. He came and dwelt in Nazareth, ybr the purpose expressed in what follows. It and which represent the last clause in the sentence—" He shall be called a Nazarene." The excellence and utility of sub- stitutes and abbreviations are strikingly illustrated by this use of that. This substitute has a similar use in this introductory sen- tence. That we may proceed- — that here refers to the fol- lowing words. The true construction is. But that we may proceed — hut, as will hereafter be shown, denoting supply or something more or further ; so that the literal interpreta- tion of the expression is — More that, or further that^ we may proceed. It is the simple mode our ancestors used to ex- press addition to what has preceded, equivalent to the mod- ern phrase ; let us add, or we may add what follows, by way of illustrating or modifying the sense of what has been related. That, like who and which, has a connecting power, which has given to these words the name of relative; in which char- acter, it involves one member of a sentence within another, by introducing a new verb ; as, '* He, that keepeth his mouth, keepeth his life." Prov. 13. 3. — In this passage, that kerpeth his mouth, is a new affirmation, interposed between the first nominative and its verb ; but dependant on the antecedent nominative. " The poor of the flock, that waited upon me, knew that it was the word of the Lord." — Zech. 11. 11. In this passage, we have that in both its characters — the first that is a substi- tute for poor of the flock ; the second, for the last clause of tAe sentence, if was the word of the Lord. This exposition of the uses of that eiv^VAe^xi^VciwicARx^VasA ^G propriety oftAat that joined m coiiaUxicXvoii. or THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 85 ''Let me also tell you thai, that faith, which proceeds from insufficient or bad principles, is but little better than infidelity." In this passage, the first that is a substitute for the whole subsequent part of the sentence ; the second that IB an attribute agreeing with faith — " That faith which pro- ceeds from bad principles is little better than infidelity — let me tell you that.** Hence it might be well always to sepa- rate the two words by a comma. We now distinguish these words by a stronger emphasis on the last. ** He, whom thou now hast, is not thy husband ; in that saidst thou truly." — John 4. 16. That is, in that whole declaration. From these passages and the explanation, we learn that that is a substitute— either for a single word or a sentence ; nor has it any other character, except when an attribute. This is much less frequently a substitute for sentences than that ; but is used in this character, as well as in that of an attribute ; as, " Let no prince measure the danger of dis- contents by this, whether they be just or unjust ; for thai were to imagine people to be reasonable, who do oflen spurn at their own good ; nor yet by this, whether the griefs where/' upon they rise he in fact great or small,** Bacon on Kingdoms, Here this, in each part of the sentence, is the representa- tive of the clause in italics succeeding. " Can we suppose that all the united powers of hell are able to, work such astonishing miracles, as were wrought for the confirmation of the Christian religion T Can we suppose that they can control the laws of nature at pleasure, and that with an air of sovereignty, and professing themselves the lords of the universe, as we know Christ did ? If we can believe this, then we deny," &c. We observe, here, this represents a series of sentences. In some cases, this represents a few words only in a pre- ceding sentence, as in the following — " The rule laid down is in general certain, that the king only can convoke a par^ Kament, And this by the ancient statutes of the realm, he is bound to do, every year, or oftener, if need be." Blacks. Comment, B, 1, ch. 2. If we ask, What is the king bound to dQ\ ^^ ^\\aw«^ must be, Convoke a parliament ; for vrYivcYi yjox^^ ^owa t>ft* 18 the gubstitute, and governed by do. 36 AN IXPBOYSD GBAMHAR The plurals these and those, are rarely or never used as substitutes for sentences. Which. Which is also a substitute for a sentence, or part of a sentence, as well as for a single word ; as, ** if there can be any other way shown, how men may come to that universal agreement, in the things they do consent in, which I presume may be done." — Locke on Und. B. 1. 2. Which, in this passage, represents all which precedes — which or all that is above related, may be done. " Another reason that makes me doubt of any innate prac- tical principles, is, that I think there cannot any one moral rule be proposed, whereof a man may not justly demand a reason ; which would be perfectly ridiculous and absurd, if they were innate, or so much as setf-evideni, which every innate principle must needs be.'' — Ibm, chap. 3. In this passage, the first which represents th^ next prece- ding part of the sentence, a man nuty justly demand a reason — which power of demanding a reason would be ridiculous. The second which is a substitute for self-evident; which, that is, seV-evident, every principle must be. ** Judas declared him innocent, which he could not be, had he, in any respect, deceived the disciples.'* — Forteus, Lect. 2. Here which represents the attribute innocent. That would equally well represent the same word, with a connective. ''Judas declared him innocent, and thai he could not be,'' &lc, *' We shall find the reason of it to be the end of language, which being to communicate thoughts" — ^that is, end of ion- guage ; and for those words, is which the substitute. What. This substitute has several uses. First — it has the sense of that which; as, " I have heard what has been alleged." Secondly — What stands for any indefinite idea; as, "He cares not what he says or does." ** We shall the better know what to undertake." — Locke on Und. 1. 6. Thirdly — What is an attribute, either in the singular or p/uraJ number, and denotes something uncertain or indeter- minate; as, ** In what chaTacieT,l&u\\et vi^ ^<^tcv\Wft^ vcAi;^ thatJadf'B aervicc, is unknown."— JoKnsoiC s lAJt oj H^uIUt* f^S4-^yd 4J A^i^i A^ t€UA ^ Oka V* A»^» OF THC XNOLI8H LANGUAGE. 37 " It is not material what names are assigned to them." Camp, Rhet 1. 1. ''I know not what impressions time may have made upon your person." Life of Cowp, Let, 27. ** To see what are the causes of wrong judgment." Locke, 2. 21. Fourthly — What is used by the poets preceding a name, for the or that which, but its place cannot be supplied by these words, without a name between them ; as, " What time the sun withdrew his cheerful light, And sought the sable caverns of the night." Hooters Tasso, h, 7. That is, at the time when or in which. Fifthly — A principal use of what is to ask questions ; as, "What will be the consequence of the revolution in France ?" This word has the singular property of containing two eases ; that is, it performs the office of a word in the nominative, and of another in the objective case ; as, " I have, in what goes before, been engaged in physical inquiries farther than I in- tended." — Locke, 2. 8. Here what contains the object after in, and the nominative to goes. What is used with a name as an attribute and a substif tute ; as, '' It was agreed that what goods were aboard his vessels, should be landed." — Mickk's Discovery of ImUa, 89. Here what goods are equivalent to the goods which; fi>r, what goods include the nominative to two verbs, were and should be landed. This use of the word is not deemed elegant As, ^5 primarily signifies like, similar ; the primary sense of which is even, equal. It is used adverbially in the phrases, as good, 05 great, as probable. The sense of which is, like or equally good, great or probable. Hence it frequently fol- lows such, ''Send him such books as will please him." But in this and similar phrases, as must be considered as the nommative to unU please; or we must suppose an elU^&U ^C several words. " Send him sucVi \>ooVsi ^ tHe ^ooV.^ MjVo.t^ will please him^ or as thost whxck vi\VL \\^«j» Vvkv^* ^» ^^^ the Mlowing sentences : 4 88 AN niPBOTXD GRAMMAR " We have been aecastomed to repose on its veracity with such humble confidence as suppresses curiosity." Johnson's Life of Cowley, " AH the punishment which God is concerned to see in- flicted on sin, is only such as answers the ends of govern- ment." '^ Many wise men contented themselves with such proba- ble conclusions, as were sufficient for the practical purposes of life." Enfield, Hist Phil 2. 11. ** The malcontents made such demands as none but a ty- rant could refuse." Bolinghroke on Hist, Let 7. In the last example, if as is to be considered as a pronoun or substitute, it is in the objective case. These and similar phrases are anomalous; and we can resolve them only by supplying the ellipsis, or by considering us in the nature of a pronoun, and the nominative to the verb. In the following form of expression, we may supply it for the nominative : '* Do every thing as was said about mercu- ry and sulphur." — JBncyc, ** As it was. said." In poetry, as suj^lies the place of such, or such as. '* From whence might contest spring and mutual rage, As would the camp in civil broils engage." Hoole's Tasso. In prose, we should say, ** such contest and rage as*' As sometimes refers to a sentence or member of a sen- tence, and sometimes its place may be supplied by which, "On his return to Egypt, as I learned from the same au- thority, he levied a mighty army." Beloe^ Herod, Which I learned. " On his return to Egypt, he levied a mighty army, which [fact] I learned from the same authority." As often begins a sentence. *' ^5 to the three orders of pronouns already mentioned, they may be called pre-positive, as may indeed all substantives." — Harris. That is, con- eenUng, respecting the three orders, or to explain that which respects the three orders, 6lc, m Both, Both is an adjective of number ; but it is a substitute also £}r names, Bentencea, parts of sentences, and for attributes OF THE XN0U8H UMQVAOm. 39 " Abraham took aheep and oxen, and gave them to Abimo* lech^ and bath of them made a covenant" Genesis, 21. 27. Here both is the representative of Abraham and Abtme^ lech, '' If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the ditch." Matt. 15. 14. "A certain creditor had two debtors — and when they had nothing to pay, he frankly forgave them both** — Luke 7. ** He will not bear the loss of his rank, because he can bear the loss of his estate ; but he will bear both, because he is prepared for both,** — Boling. on Exile, In the last example, both represents the parts of the sen- tence in italics. When it represents two attributes, it may and usually does precede them ; as, " he endeavored to render commerce both disadvantageous and infamous." — Mickle, p. 159. As an attribute, it has a like position before names ; as, '' Tousa confessed he had saved both his life and his honor." Ibm. IGO. " It is both more accurate, and proves no inconsiderable aid to the right understanding of things, to discriminate by different signs such as are truly different." CampbeUs Rhet. 1. 33. In this passage, both represents more accurate, and the following member of the sentence ; but the construction is harsh. " The necessity which a speaker is under, of suiting him- self to his audience, both that he may be understood by them^ and that his words may have an influence upon them." — Camp, Rhet. Ch. 10. Here both represents the two following clauses of the sen- tence. The definitive the is placed between both and its noun ; as, '' To both the preceding kinds, the term burlesque is applied." — Camp. Rhet. 1. 2. Same. The adjective same is oflen used as a substitute for per- sons and sentences or parts of a sentence ; as, ''Nothing ap- pears so clearly an object of the mind oi vckVc^^^N. ^^^% 40 AK IMPEOYED CBAMMAR the future does, since we can find no place for its existence any where else. Not but the same, if we consider, is equal- ly true of the pcist J* — Hermes, p. 112. In this ill-constructed sentence, same has reference to all which is predicated of the future tense — that is, that it is an object of intellect only, since we can find no place for its ez- istence any where else — The same, all thi^ is true of the past also. " For brave and generous ever are the same" Lusiad. 1. Many, few, all, any. These words we often find used as substitutes for names ; *' For many shall come in my name, saying, I am Christ, and shall deceive many." — Matt, 24. 5. ** Many are called, hxxi few chosen." 20. 16. " All that come into the tent, and all that is in the tent, shall be unclean seven days.'' — Num. 19. 14. '* If a soul shall sin against any of the command- ments." — Lev. 4. 2. " Neither is there any, that can de- liver out of my hand." — Deut. 32, 39. First, last , former , latter, less, least, more, most, are oflen used as substitutes. "The victor's laurel, as the martyr's crown, The ^rs^ I hope, nor less the last I prize." Hoo^s Tasso, 6. 8. " Th^ last shall be first, and the first last.-^Matt. 20. 16. " It will not be amiss to inquire into the cause of this strange phenomenon ; that, even a man of discernment should write without meaning, and not be sensible that he hath no meaning ; and that judicious people should read what hath been written in this way, and not discover the defect. Both are surprising, but i\ie first much more than the last." — Camp. Rhet. 2. 7. Here both represents the two clauses of the sentence, pre- ceded by that — both of those propositions are surprising. First and last stand in the place of the same clauses. "Sublimity and vehemence are oflen confounded, the lat" ter being considered as a species of the former." — Camp. JRhet. 1. 1. Here latter hnd former are used for names which are near in construction, and no obscurity is occasioned by the sub- stjttjtes. But these words, when placed far from the words which they represent , obscure the sense, and compel the OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 41 reader to peruse a sentence the second time, which is always a faolt in style. For example : '' As to the iEtolian, it is frequently confounded with the Doric ; and as this union takes place also in other essential points, it is only between the Dorians and lonians that a kind of parallel can he drawn. This I shall not undertake to perform ; I shall only make one general observation ; the manners of the former have ever been severe, and the characteristics of their architect- ure, language and poetry, are grandeur and simplicity. The latter more early made a progress in refinement.'' — Anarch, ch, 72. In every case, where the antecedent word or sentence is not obvious, so that the mind instantly applies the substitute to its principal, the use of a substitute is a fault. For exam- ple : " When a speaker addresseth himself to the understand- ing, he proposes the instruction of his hearers, and that hy explaining some doctrine unknown or not distinctly compre- hended by them, or hy proving some position disbelieved or doubted by them. In other words, he proposes to dispel ig- norance or to vanquish error. In the one^ his aim is their information ; in the other, their conviction. Accordingly, the predominant quality of the former \s perspicuity ; of the latter^ argument. By that, we are made to know ; by this, to be- lieve." — Camp, Rhet, 6. 1. ch, 1. To what antecedent words or clauses, do all these substi- tutes refer ? In the one — and the other what ? Doubtless, the antecedents must be the two parts of the sentences, beginning with, hy explaining and hy proving. That is, in explaining an unknown doctrine, his aim is instruction — in proving a doubted point, his aim is conviction. The predominant quality of the former — former what 1 unquestionably, the same sentences are the antecedents to the former and latter. These words cannot refer to information and conviction ; for although perspicuity may be predica^d of information, yet it cannot be a predominant quality of it; and argument cannot be predicated of conviction. But the whole passage is per- plexed and obscure.* • Thii criticiBm is the more neceeianr, u the use of former and huter in our best writers, is indulged to a fault. There are few placet in which it is not better to repeat the antecedents than to use former and latter. The injudicious use of these and other substitutes is a great blemish iai Campbeirs Philosophy of Rhetoric. 43 AN IMPBOTSD GRAMMAR ** Leon is refused to go thither with less than the appoint- ed equipment.'' — Mickle, 1. 181. Here less supplies the place of equipment, and prevents the necessity of its repe> tition. " To the relief of these, Noronha sent some supplies, but while he was preparing to send Tnore, an order from Portugal arrived."— McJfc/c, 1. 180. Here more is sufficiently intelligible without a repetition of the name — supplies, '* And the children of Israel did so, and gathered, some more, some, less J* — Exod, 16. 17. '' I cannot go beyond the word of the Lord, my God, to do less or more, — Numb, 22. 18. ** Then began he to upbraid the cities wherein most of his mighty works were done." — Matt, 11. 20. '* Was not this love indeed 1 We men say more, swear more, but indeed Our shews are more than will." Shahs. Twelfth Night, Such, '* Jabal was the father of such as dwelt in tents." — Gen, 4. " Thou shalt provide able men, such as fear God.'* — Ex, 18. ** Objects of importance must be portrayed by objects of importance ; such as have grace, by things graceful." — Camp Rhet. 1. 2. Such here supplies the place of a name or noun, but it re- tains its attributive sense, and the name may be added. SelftLnd own. Self is said to have been originally an attribute ; but is now used as an intensive word to give emphasis to substi- tutes and attributes.* ifSometimes it is used as a noun. In the plural, it forms sehet. It is added to the attributes my, your, oum ; as, myself, yourself,f ourselves ; and to him, her. * SdfhxM the force of the Latin ipsB, and waa in Saxon, added to all caaei ; ht-st^f^ hU-aeHf, him-teff. So in Latin tu, U, ipse, was lued in the nominative. t In thif compound, we have a strong confirmation of what I have al- Jedged reapecting the arrangement of yau in the singular number, when (M^a afm tingle pertoB, Self is invariably in the singiUar— js/vm in or THE KNGLISH LANGUAGE. 43 ikem ; at, himself, herself, themselves. And though annexed to substitutes in the objective case, these Words are indiflfer- ently in the nominative or objective. 8elf is never added to his, their, mine, or thine. The compounds himself, herself, thyself, ourselves, them' uhes, may be placed immediately afler the personal substi- tute ; as, He himself wrote a letter to the minister ; or immedi- ately after the following verb or its object ; as, '' He wrote a letter himself,^* — " he went himself to the admiralty." In such phrases, himself not only gives emphasis to the affirmation, -/^ but gives to an implied negative, the force of one expressed. ** He went himself to the minister/' carries with it a direct negation that another person went. In negative sentences, it has a different effect. ** He did not write the letter himself," implies strongly that he wrote it by an agent, or had an agency in procuring it to be written. These compound substitutes are used after verbs when re- ciprocal action is expressed ; as, " They injure themselves." Itself is added to names for emphasis ; '* this is the book ^' itself' Own is an attribute denoting property, used with names to ^^ render the sense emphatical ; as, '* this book is my own.^* Oum is sometimes a substitute ; as, '* He came unto his awn, and his own received him not."— JbAn 1. 11. '' This is an invention of his own." One, other, another, iMHe. The attribute one is very often a substitute— o^Aer is used in the same manner, and often opposed to one, ''All ration- al or deductive evidence is derived from one or the other of these two sources." — Camp. Rhet. ch. 5. To render these words more definite, and the specification of the alternative the plural. Now if you i« to be classed with plurals in aU cases, we must, to be consistent, ^pply ycuradvet to a single person. Yet we make the proper distinction — yourtdf is applied to one person — ycut' Melves to more. But upon the principle of our grammars', that yrm must always be joined to a verb in the plural, we are under the necessitv of saying, " You yourself were f** when we address a single person — which is false construction. Whatever verb therefore is used with you when applied to an individual, it must be coniideied as a verb in the aia^^^ilas number. 44 AN lUPROTED GRAMMAR more explicit, the definitive the is placed before them ; as, *' either he will hate the one, and love the other" Another has sometimes a possessive case ; as, '' the horse is another's ;*' but this form of speech is but little used. Another is the Saxon an, one, and other — one other. It is an attribute ; but often used as a substitute. *' Let another praise thee, and not thine own mouth." — Prov. 27. 2. (None [no one] is often a substitute ; as, '* Ye shall lie doMm and none shall make you afraid." — Lev. 26. 6. It is used in the plural as well as the singular number. The cardinal numbers are all used as substitutes, when the things to which they refer are understood by the train of discourse, and no ambiguity is created by the omission of the name ; as, ** The rest of the people also cast lots, to bring one of ten to dwell in Jerusalem." — Neh. 11. 1. 7 One has sometimes the possessive form ; *' One's person N 18 to be protected by law ;" and frequently the plural num- ' ber ; as, '* I have commanded my sanctified ones, and I have called my mighty ones,** — Isa. 13. 9. One, when contrasted with other, sometimes represents plural names, and is joined with a plural verb, as in this pas- sage ; " The reason why the one are ordinarily taken for real qualities, and the other, only for bare powers, seems to be," 6Lc.^Locke, b. 2. ch. 8. 25. One and another have a peculiar distributive use in the following and the like expressions ; ** Brethren, let us love ^ one another J* Thi^ effect of these words seems to be, to I separate an act affirmed of a number collectively, and distri- ^ bute it among the several individuals — '* Let us love — let each one lov^ the oth^r." ** If ye have love one to another" — ■" by love serve one another." One another, in this phrase- C^ogy, have the comprehensive sense of every one. ** By fL love serve"^-every one serve the other. Each is used in a like sense — They love each other — that is — they love —each love the other. Several. Several is an attribute, denoting originally one thing sev* ered from others. But this sense seems to be now confined to technical law language ; as, " a joint and several estate." In common use, it » always plural, expressive of an indefi- n/te number, not very large. It is firec^uenU^ a. aubstitute ; or THX ENGLISH LAWOUAOS. 46 as, " Several of my unknown correspondents.*' — Spectator, 281. Some. The attribute some is often used as a substitute ; as, ** Some talk of subjects they do not understand ; others praise virtue who do not practice ii^-^^ohnson. Each, every, either, neither. Each is a distributive attribute, used to denote every indi- vidual of a number, separately t^onsidered ; as, '*The king of Israel and the king of Judah sat each on his throne." ** Thou also and Aaron, take each of you his censer." " The four beasts had each of them six wings." In these passages, each is a substitute for the name of the persons or objects, one separate from the other.* Every denotes all the individuals of a number considered separately ; it is therefore a distributive attribute, but some- times a substitute, chiefly in the law style ; as, " every of the clauses and conditions." It is generally followed by the name to which it belongs, or by the cardinal number one. We sometimes see every separated from its name by the definitive the and an attribute of the superlative degree ; as, ** every the least variation." — Locke. Eithtir and neither are usually classed with the conjunctions ; but in strictness, they are always attributes or substitutes. Their correlatives or and nor^ though coni^idered as conjunctions, belong to the latter class of words — or being merely an abbreviation of other ^ and nor being the same word with the Saxon negative prefixed, as will be hereafler shown. Either and or denote an alternative ; as, '' I will take either road at your pleasure." That is, I will take one road or the other. In this use, either is an attribute. Either is also a substitute for a name ; as, '' Either of the roads is good." It also represents a sentence or a clause of a sentence ; as, " No man can serve two masters, for et- ther he will hate the one and love the other, or else," dtc. Matt. 6. 2. To understand the true import of either, let or be also reduced back to its original orthography ; ''for either he will hate the one and love the other ; other else he will * Each is as applicable to a hundred or thousand as to two. " The Erince had a bodj-ffoard of a thousand men, each of whom was six feet igh." 46 AN IMPBOYED GBAMICAB hold to the one and despise the other." Here we are pre- sented with the sentence as it would hare stood in the Saxon ; and we see two distinct affirmations, to the first of which is prefixed either , and td the last other. These words then are substitutes for the following sentences, when they are intended to be alternative. Either and or are therefore signs of an alternative, and may be called alternatives. Either is used also for ead; as, " Two thieves were cru- cified — on either side one." This use of the word is con- stantly condemned by critics, and as constantly repeated by good writers ; but it was the true original sense of the word, as appears by every Saxon author. Either is used also to represent an alternative of attri- butes ; as, *' the emotion must be either^ not violent or not durable." — Camp. Rhet. 1. 2. Neither is not either , from the Saxon ne-either; and nor is neither, not other. As either and or present an alterna- tive or a choice of two things ; so neither and nor deny both or the whole of any number of particulars ; as, ** Fight neither with small nor great." — 1 Kings, 22. 31. Which sentence, when resolved, stands thus ; " Fight not either with small, not other with great." Such is the curious machinery of lan- guage ! Neither is also used as an attribute and as a substitute for a name ; as, " Neither office is filled, but neither of the of- fices will suit the candidate." Note. — Ovy either, nor and neither, are here explained in their true original character ; but when they stand for sentences, it is more natu- ral to consider them as connectives^ under which head I have arranged them. In general, any attribute [adjective] which describes per- sons or things with sufficient clearness, without the name to which it strictly belongs, may be used as a substitute ; as, " The rich have many friends" — " Associate with the wise and goofF* — " The future will resemble thejpas^" — " Such is the opinion of the learned." ATTRIBUTES OR ADJECTIVES. Adjectives in grammar are words which denote the quali- ties inherent in, or ascribed to things, or defining them ; as, adri^kt sun ; a splendid equipage ; a miserable hut ; a mag- n(/icent house; an honest man; an amiobbU yioi£axl\ UWoi charity; Jialse honor ; a quiet conscience. or THB ENGLISH LANOUiLGE. 47 As qaalities may exist in different degrees, which may be compared with each otlier, suitable modes of speech are de- vised to express these comparative degrees. . In English, most attributes admit of three degrees of comparison, and a few admit oi four. There are therefore four degrees of comparison. The first denotes a slight degree of the quality, and is ex- pressed by the termination ish; as, reddish, brownish, yeU hwish. This may be denominated the imperfect degree of ^l the attribute. The second denotes such a degree of the attribute as to constitute an absolute or distinct quality ; as, red, brown, great, small, brave, wise. This is called the positive degree. The third denotes a greater or less degree of a quality, than exists in another object, with which it is compared ; as, greater, smaller^ braver, wiser. This is called the compara- tive degree. The fourth denotes the utmost or least degree of a quali- ty ; as, bravest, wisest, poorest, smallest. This is called the superlative degree. The imperfect degree is formed by adding ish to an attri- 1? bute ; as, yellow, yellowish. If the attribute ends in e, this Towel is omitted ; as white, whitish. The comparative degree is formed by adding r to adjec- tives ending with e; as, wise, wiser — and by adding er to words ending with a consonant ; as, cold, colder-'-ot by pre- fixing more or less ; as, more just, less noble. The superlative degree is formed by adding st to attri- butes ending with e; as, wise, wisest — and est to those which end with a consonant ; as, cold, coldest~-oT by prefix- ing most and least ; as, most brave, least charitable. Every attribute susceptible of comparison, may be com- pared by more and most, less and least. All monosyllables admit of er and est, and dissyllables when the addition may be easily pronounced; as, happy, happier, happiest ; lofty, loftier, loftiest. But few words of more syllables than one will admit of er and est. Hence ' most attributes of more syllables than one are compared by more and most, less and least ; as, more fallible, most up- right, less generous, least splendid. When attributes end in y after a coh^tv^wX.^ Xjo^a V.\.\rx'>^ dropped, and / substituted before cr EXi^est; ^a>1oS^*^^^S^ ur, loftiest. 48 AN IlfPBOTED ORABHCAB A few attributes have different words or irregular termi- nations for expressing the degrees of comparison ; as, good^ .better, best ; . bad or evil, worse, worst ; fore, former, first ; little, less or lesser, least; much, more, most; near, near" er, nearest or next ; old, older, oldest or eldest ; late, later, latest or last. When qualities are incapable of increase or diminution, the words which express them do not admit of comparison. Such are the numerals, ^r.s^, second, third, &lc., attributes of mathematical figures, as square, spherical, rectangular — for it will readily appear, that if a thing \s first or square, it can- not be more or less so. The sense of attributes however is not restricted to the modification, expressed by the common signs of compari- son ; but may be varied in an indefinite number of ways, by other words. Thus the attribute very, which is the French vrai, true, formerly written veray, is much used intensively to express a great degree of a quality, but not the greatest ; ^^ as, very wise or teamed. In like manner are used much^ 7i far, extremely <, exceedingly, and most of the modifiers in ly. Som^ adjectives, from particular appropriate uses, have received names, by which they are distinguished. But the usual classification is by no means correct The following distribution seems to result from the uses of the words named. An or a, the, this, that, these, those, other, another, one, none, some, may be called definitives, firom their office, which b to limit or define the extent of the name to which they are prefixed, or to specify particulars. My, thy, her, our, your, their; and mine, thine, his, when used as attributes, with names, are possessive cUtHhutes, as they denote possession or ownership. Its and whose, if ranked with attributes, belong to the same class. Each and every are distributives, but they may be classed with the definitives. Either is an aUemative, as is or, which is now considered merely as a connective. Own i^ hxi intensive adjective. The words to which sdf is affixed, himaelf, myself, themselves, yourself yourselves, ourselves, thyself itself may be denominated intensive sub- stitutes, or, for brevity, intensives. Or they may be called compound sidf stitutes. OV THE ENGLIf H LANOCAOE. 49 TERB. The verb is a primary/ part of Hpeech, and of the most im- portance. The uses of the verb are, 1st. To affirm, assert or declare ; as, the sun shines ; John loves study ; God is just; and negatively, avarice is not commendable. 2d, To command, exhort or invite ; as, go, attend, let us observe. 3d. To pray, request, entreat ; as, O may the spirit of grace dwell in us. 4th. To inquire or question; as, does it rain? will he come? From the various uses and significations of verbs, have originated several divisions or classes. The only one in English which seems to be correct, and sufficiently compre- hensive, is into transitive and intransitive. To these may be added a combination of the verb be, with certain auxilia- ries and participles, which is called a passive verb, or rather the passive form of the verb.* 1. A transitive verb denotes action or energy, which if exerted upon some object, or in producing some effect. In natural construction, the word expressing the object, fnU lows the verb, without the intervention of any other word, though the order may be sometimes varied. Thus, ** ridi- cule provokes anger," is a complete proposition — ridicule is the agent or nominative word, which causes the action—* provoke is the verb, or affirmation of an act — anger is the object or effect produced, following the transitive verb prO' vokf., " The wind propels a ship," is the affirmation of an act of the wind exerted on a ship. Wind is the agent, propels, the verb, and ship, the object. 2. An intransitive verb denotes simple being or exist- ence ill a certain state ; as, to be, to rest ; ox it denotes ac- tion, which is limited to the subject. Thus, " John sleeps," is an affirmftion, in which John, the nominative to sleeps, , . — - - - - — * ^ Thn common diitribution into aetivn^ neufer and ptUMivft if verj ob- jectionable. Many of our neuter verbs imply action In a pre-eminent deiptv, aa to rnut to walk^ to /y; and the ^oung learner cannot easilj conceive why such verba are not called active, 5 50 AN III PBOTXD OaAMXAR is the subject of the affirmatioD ; sh^s is a verb intransi^ live, affirming a particular thing of John, which extends to DO other object. 3. The passive form of the verb in English, is composed of certain auxiliaries and participles with the verb he. It denotes passion or suffering ; that is, that the subject of the affirmation or nominative is affected by the action affirmed ; as, " John is convinced." '* Laura is loved and admired." In this form of the verb, the agent and object change places. In the transitive form, the agent precedes the verb, and the object follows ; as, '* John has convinced Moses." In the passive form, the order is changed, and the agent fol- lows the verb, preceded by a preposition; as, '* Moses is convinced by John." To correspond with their nominatives, verbs are used in both numbers, and with the three persons in each. As action and being may be mentioned as present, past or future, verbs have modifications to express time, which are called tenses. And as action and being may be repre* sented in various ways, v«rbs have various modifications to answer these purposes, called modes. Hence to verbs be- long person, number, tense and mode. The persons which hare been already explained, are, I, thou or you, he, she, it, in the singular number ; in the plu- ral, we, ye or you, they. The numbers have been before explained. r TENSES. There are six tenses, modifications or combinations of the rerb to express time. Each of these is divided into two forms, for the purpose of distinguishing the definite or pre- osf lime from the indefinite. These may be thus explained uid exemplified :*- Present Tense^ indefinite.. This form of the present tense affirms or denies action or being, in present time, without limiting it with exactness to a given point It expresses also facts which exist generally, at all times, general truths, attributes which are permanent, habits, customary actions, and the like, without reference to a specific time ; as, God is infinitely great and just ; man is imperfect and dependent; plants spring from the earth; birds^y; fishes swim. OF THS SNGLISH hJJXQVAQE. St Present Tense^ definite. This form expresses the present |ime with precision ; usually denoting action or being, which corresponds in time with another action ; hs, I am writing, while you are waii» ing. Past Tense, indefinite. This form of the past tense represents action which took place at a given time past, however distant, and completely past ; as, *' In six days, God created the heavens and the earth." ** Alexander conquered the Persians." ** Scipio teas as virtuous as brave." ** The Earl of Chatham was an eloquent statesman." Past Tense, definite [imperfect.] This form represents an action as taking place and unfin- ished in some specified period of past time ; as, '* I was standing at the door wheh the procession passed." Perfect Tense, indefinite. This form of the perfect tense represents an action com- pletely past, and often at no great distance, but the time not specified ; as, " / have accomplished my design,** But if a particular time is named, the tense must be the past ; as, " I accomplished my design last week." ** I have seen my friend last week," is not correct English. In this respect, the French idiom is different from the English ; for, ** J' ai vu mon ami hier," is good French, but ** I have seen my friend yesterday," is not good English. The words must be translated, ** I saw my friend yesterday." No fault is more common than a mistranslation of this tense. It is to be noted however that this perfect indefinite tense, is that in which we express continued or repeated action. ** My father has lived about eighty years." " The king has reigned more than forty years." " He has been frequently heard to lament." — Life of Cowper, We use it also when a specified past time is represented, if that time is expressed as a part of the present period. Thus, although we cannot say, " We have been together yesterday," we usually say, *' We have been together this morning, or this evening." We even use this tense in mentioning events which happen* ed at a greater distance of time, if we connect that time with the present ; as, " His brother has visited him once wUJIiuSL 63 AK IMPBOTEB O&AMM AR two years." *' He has not seen his sister, since the year 1800." Perfect Tense, definite. This form represents an action as just finished ; as, ^' I have been reading a history of the revolution in France." Prior-Past Tense, indefinite [pluperfect.] This form of the prior past tense expresses an action which was past at or before some other past time specified ; as, '' He had received the news before the messenger ar- rived." Prior-Past, definite. This form denotes an action to be just past, at or before another time specified ; as, *' I had been reading your letter when the messenger arrived." JPuture Tense, indefinite. This form of the future tense gives notice of an event to happen hereafter ; as, *' Your son will obtain a commission in the navy.'' " We shall have a fine season." Future Tense, definite. This form expresses an action which is to take place and be unfinished at a specified future time ; as, " He wiU be preparing for a visit at the time you arrive." Prior-Puture, indefinite. This form of the future tense denotes an action which will be past at a future time specified ; as, **• They will have per^ formed their task, by the appointed hour." Prior-Future, definite. This form represents an action which will be just past at a future specified time ; as, " We shall have been making preparations, a week before our friends arrive."* * Tlie common names and distribation of the tenses, are so atlerly in- correct and incompetent to ^ve a jnst idea of their uses, that I have ven- tured to offer a new division, retaining the old names, as far as truth will warrant. The terms prf/jr-pastf and jrrior-futurpf are so perfectly de- scriptive of the tenses arranged under them, that I cannot but think they will be well received. The distinction of indefinite and definite is not wholly new ; but I have never seen the definite forms displayed, though they are as necessary as the indefinite forms. Indeed, I see not how a foreigner can learn our language, as the tenses are commonly distributed Mnd ae&aed OF THS ENGLISH LANGUAGE. fiS la the 086 of the present tense, the following things are to be noticed. 1. The present tense is customarily used to express fu- ture time, when by any mode of expression, the mind is transported forward to the time, so as to conceive it pres- ent ; as, " I cannot determine, till the mail arrives." " As soon as it is light, we shall depart." *' When he has an op- portunity, he will write." The words till, when, as soon as, carry the mind to the time of an event to happen, and we speak of it as present. , 2. By an easy transition, the imagination passes from an author to his writings; these being in existence and present^ though long afler his decease, we substitute the writer's name for his works, and speak of him as living, or in the present tense ; thus, Milton resembles Homer in sublimity and in* vention, as Pope resembles Virgil, in smoothness of versifi- cation. Plato 15 fanciful; Aristotle is profound. 3. It gives great life and effect to description, in prose or verse, to represent past events as present ; to introduce them to the view of the reader or hearer, as having a present ex- istence. Hence the frequent use of the present tense for ths future, by the historian, the poet and the orator :— - ** She spoke ; Minerva bums to meet the war ; And now heaven's empress calls the blazing car; At her command rush forth the steeds divine ; Rich with immortal gold, the trappings shine." Iliad, 5. The definite tenses, it will be observed, are formed by the participle of the present tense, and the substantive verb, be. This participle always expresses present time, even when annexed to a past or future tense; for / was turiting, de- notes, that, at the past time mentioned, the action was pres- ent ; / shall be writing, denotes future time, but an action then to be present. The past tense of every regular verb ends in ed — d being added to a verb ending in e ; and ed to a verb with other terminations ; as, hate, hated ; look, looked. The future tense is formed by the present tense of shaU and will; for, I shall go, he will go, are merely an appro- priate use of I shall to go, I unll to ^o. See an explanation of these words under the head of auxiliati^^, 6» 54 AN IMPROrED GRAMMAR There are other modes of expressing future time ; as, '' I am going to write" — " I am ahout to write." These have been called the inceptive future, as they note the commence- ment of an action^ or an intention to commence an action without delay. We have another mode of expression, which does not strictly and positively foretell an action, yet it implies a ne- cessity of performing an act, and clearly indicates that it will take place. For example, ** 1 have to pay a sum of money to-morrow." That is, I am under a present necessity or ol> ligation to do a future act. The substantive verb followed by a radical verb, forms another idiomatic expression of future time ; as, " John is to command a regiment." '' Eneas went in search of the seat of an empire which was^ one day, to command the world." The latter expression is a future-past — that is, past as to the narrator ; but future as to the event, at the time specified. MODES. - Mode^ in grammar, is the manner of representing action and being, or the wishes and determinations of the mind. This is performed by inflections of the verb, or by combina- tions of verbs with auxiliaries and participles, and by their various positions. As there are scarcely two authors who are agreed in the number and denominations of the modes in English, I shall offer a distribution of the verbs, and a display of their in- flections and combinations, somewhat different from any which I have seen. « 1 . The first and most simple form of the verb, is, the verb without inflections, and unconnected with persons. This form usually has the prefix to ; as, to love. This form of the verb, not being restricted to person or number, is usually called the Infinitive Mode, 2. Another use of the verb is to affirm^ assert or declare some action or existence, either positively, as, he runs, or negatively, as, you are not in health. This form is called the Indicative Mode. 3. Another office of the verb is to command, direct, ask, pr exhort; as, arise, make ^te, let usbeccmlent. TfaiU is called the Imperative Mode. or THB ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 55 4. Another use of verbs is to represent actions or events which are uncertain, conditional or contingent ; as, if he shall fo; if they would attend. This is called the Subjunctive [ode; but would better be denominated the Conditional. The indicative becomes conditional, by means of words used to express condition ; as, if, though, unless, whether. The Modes then are four — ^the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Imperative, and the Subjunctive. It may also be observed that the combinations, and ar- rangements of our verbs and auxiliaries to express negative and interrogative propositions, are really modes of the verb, and a place might be assigned to the verb for each purpose, were it not for the inconvenience of having modes of modes. For the sake of distinction, I denominate these verbs inter^ rogative and negative, and have exhibited the conjugation of each. PARTICIPLES. Participles are derivatives from verbs, formed by partica- / lar terminations, and having the sense of verbs, attributes or i names. There are two species of participles— -one denoting pres- ent time, and formed by adding ing to the verb ; as, tum^ turning: or, when the verb ends with e, by dropping that letter and adding ing ; as, place, placing. But e is retained in dyeing, from dye, to color, to distinguish it from dying, the participle of die ; in which word, y is used to prevent the auplication of t. In singeing, from singe, e is retained to soden g, and to distinguish the word from singing; so also in tioingeing. This participle of the present tense is used, as before ob- served, to form the definite tenses. But it often loses the sense of the verb, and becomes an attribute ; as, a loving friend, lasting friendship. In this use, it admits of compar- ison by more and less, most and least ; as, more lasting, less saving, most promising. This participle also becomes an adverb or modifier by re- ceiving the termination ly ; as, lovingly, laughingly : and this species of modifiers admits of comparison ; as, more lovingly ^ most charmingly. This participle also becomes a name atkd ^d:ccv\\.% ^^ ^^ definitive; as, "the burning of London Vo. \^fcfe«^ \^ ^^«>«k capacity, it takes the plural foim-, w, " Oaft owtrj-ouwa^* ^^^ 56 AN IMPBOTEB OBAMMAIi the Nile'' — *' He seeth all his gaings." And sometimes the plural is used when a modifier is attached to the participle ; as, 'Mhe goings out, the comings in." — JEzek, 43. 11. Bui this use of the participle is not esteemed elegant, nor is it common. In a few instances, the participle in ing becomes a name by receiving the termination ness ; as, willingness, from will- ing. The other species of participle is formed from the verb, by adding d or ea, and in regular verbs, it corresponds exactly with the past time ; as, loved, preceded. This may be called the participle of the perfect tense. This participle, when its verb is transitive, may be joined with the verb be, in all its inflections, to form the passive form of a verb, and the participle, in such combination, is called passive. But This participle, when formed from an intransitive verb, can- not, except in a few instances, be joined to the substantive verb, or used in a passive sense ; but it unites with the other auxiliaries. This participle often loses its verbal character, and be- comes an attribute ; as, a concealed plot, a painted house. In this character, it admits of comparison ; as, ''a more ad- mired artist," '' a most respected magistrate ;" and a few of these verbal attributes receive the termination 7y, and be- come modifiers ; as, pointedfy, more conceitedly, most dgect' edly. Those verbs, whose past tense and participle end in ed, are deemed regular. All which deviate from this rule, are deemed irregular, and their participles of the perfect tense end mostly 'mt,n and g. A list of them will be found in the lequek AUXILIARIES. In English, a few monosyllabic verbs are chiefly employ- ed to form the modes and tenses of other verbs, and from this use, are denominated auxiliaries or helping verbs. These are followed by other verbs, without the prefix to; as, " he may go ;" though they were originally principal verbs, and some of them still retain that character, as well as that of auxiliaries. The verbs which are always auxiliary to others, are may, can, 3haU, must; those which are sometimes auxiliaries^ or THK KNQLI8H LANOUAGS* 57 and sometimes principal rerbs, are will, have, do and be. To these may be aaded need and dare. May conveys the idea of Uberty or permission ; as, ** he may go, if he will.'' Or it denotes possibility ; as, '' he may have written or not."* Can has the sense of to be able. Shail, in its primitive sense, denotes to be obliged^ coin- ciding nearly with ought ; which sense it retains in the Ger« man. But this signification, though evidently the root of the present uses of this word, is much obscured. The fol- lowing remarks will illustrate the several uses of will and shall. Win has a common origin with the Latin volo. Hence the German wollen, the old English woll, and the present contraction toonH^ that is, woll-not.f This was originally a principal verb, and is still used as such in our language. It denotes the act of the mind in de- termining, or a determination ; for he wills to go, and he toiU go, are radically of the same import. When a man expresses his own determination of mind, / will, we are accustomed to consider the event, or act willed, as certain ; for we naturally connect the power to act, with the intention; hence we make the declaration of will a ground of confidence, and by an easy association of ideas, we connect the declaration with an obligation to carry the determination into effect. Hence will expressed by a per- son himself, came to denote ^promise. But when a person declares the will of another, he is not supposed to possess the power to decide for him, and to carry his will into effect. He merely offers an opinion, grounded on information or probable circumstances, ^thich give him more or less confidence of an event depending on another's will. Hence will in the second and third person simply foretells, or expresses an opinion of what will take place. Shall, in many of its inflections, retains its primitive sense — fo be obliged or bound in duty ; but in many of its uses, * The primitive idea expresied by may wu power ; Sax. magan, to be able, t It is suppoied that the Roman v was pronounced at our ir, too(a« 58 AN IMnOVKD QKkWtAR its sense is much varied. In the first person, it merely fore- tells; as, "I shall go to New York to-morrow." In this phrase, the word seems to have no reference to obligation ; nor is it considered hy a second person as imposing an obli- gation on the person uttering it. But when shall is used in the second and third persons, it resumes its primitive sense, or one nearly allied to it, implying obligation ; as, when a superior commands with authority, you shall go ; or imply- ing a right in the second and third person to expect, and hence denoting a promise in the speaker ; as, ** you shaU receive your wages." This is radically saying, " you ought to receive your wages;" but this right in the second person to receive, implies an obligation in the person speaking to pay. Hence shall in the first person foretells; in the second, promises ^ commands^ or expresses determination. When shall^ in the second and third persons, is uttered with emphasis, it expresses determination in the speaker, and implies an authority to enforce the act. " You shall go." Hence proceeds the impropriety of using shall, when the Supreme Being is supposed to be the person addressed or spoken of The Lord shall fight for us — the Lord shall destroy them — the Lord shall comfort Zion. ** Thou shalt not sufier thy Holy One to see corruption." Acts 13. 35. See Ps. 16. 10. Acts 2. 27. No human being has a right to use words respecting God which imply authority or command. In the examples cited^ toill is the proper auxiliary, expressing prediction. But when shall is preceded by another word, as by when^ fffhile, whoever, if, provided, &lc. it ceases, in the second and third person, to express promise, command or determination ; as. When you shall have read the books; while he shall he present ; whoever shall put away his wife ; if you shall see my friend ; provided you or he shall receive information. In these and similar examples, shall refers to event merely, without implying obligation, promise or command. Must expresses necessity, and has no variation for per- son, number or tense. Do is a principal and a transitive verb, signifying to act or make; but is used in the present and past tenses as an auxiliary, to give emphasis to a declaration, to denote con- trast, or to supply the place of the principal verb. " It would have been impossible for Cicero to inflame the or TBS KWGLIfH LAITGITAOS. 69 mindf of the people to fo high a pitch againnt oppresfion, conaidered in iA^ ,^q>&^\a &ida it the reprasentaave of an •mdividxal. OF THE SNGLISH Immand J ^ »/ ^ ^<>^ n; do n thou be, or do n be ; be ye », ) do n you be, or do you » be ; or do n be Entreaty ^^ I ^®* *^®™ ** ^ » ^®^ ^™ ** ^ 5 let ua n be ; let them n be. 5ii&;uiictii}e Jtfbd«. TAis mode is formed by prefixing w\^ »v^ ^^ ^«ti!^vwsijL, bjrpothesis or contingency, to the mdvc^Vw^ tmA'& \sv v\a\^ rjous tenses. or THX CNOLUH LANOUAOS* M Present Tenee. Past Tenee. If I am Wears C Thou art C Te are ( You are \ You are He ia They are Ffl wai We were SThou wast C Ye were You was or were ( You were He was They were The foregoing tenses express uncertainty, whether a fact exists or existed; or they admit the fact The following form is used for the like purposes : If I be We be C Thou be C Ye be ( Yon be { Yon be He be They be But this is more properly the form of the conditional fu- ture ; that is, the verb without the sign of the future — if he b€f for if he shall be. The following is the form of expressing supposition or hypothesis, and may be called the Hypotheticaf Tense. ff I were We were SThou wert C Ye were You was or were i You were He were They were " If I were," supposes I am not ; ** if I were not," sup- poses I am.* The other tenses are the same as in the indicative mode. * No fault is more common than the misapplication of this tense. In the Saxon, were was often used in the third person of the indicative mode, and without a preceding sign of condition ; as in these examples—* ** After thisum hafde se cyng mycel getheat, and swithe deope spasce with his witan ymbe this land, hu hit ttxBre gesett." — Sax. Chr&n. An, 1085. '< After this the Kingf held a ^eat council, and made important representations respecting this land, now it were settled." In the Ger- man, the inflection of the word, in the imperfect tense of the indicative, is — Ich war, du warest, er war^ he were. The orthography of the word, in the imperfect tense of the subjunctive, is were, and our early English writers seem to have confounded the two tenses. The regular Saxon verb in the past tense of the indicative, was thus inflected — Ic wes, du weere, he wibs. Hence our greatest writers, Milton, Dryden, Pope and others, retained that form of the word — Before the heavens thou wert ; remember what thou t/^er^— expressions which Lowth condemns as not analogous to the formation of words in different modes. I would con- demn this use of the verb also, but for a differeut i<^«aq\\s SN. \% "Ck^^ obsolete. Bat the use of this form of the verb \% Te\a:m«d.VR.V5cv«^ ^^^'ff^S^ mode, which, our grammars teach us, m\iKt fcWo^ ^^^« •'^«^"* ^ 6 • 66 AN IMPBOTEI^ mLAMMAR The Conjugatiim of a Regular Verb. LOVE. Infiniiive Mode, Present Tense — To lave. Perfect Tense — To have laved. Participle of the Present Tense — Loving. Of the Perfect— Loved. Compound — Having loved. Indicative Mode — Present Tense, indefinite. 1 love It We love n C Thou lovest n C Ye love n \ You love n \ You love n He loveth or loves n They love n With the auxiliary do, I do n love We do n love C Thou dost n love C Ye do n love ( You do n love I You do n love He doth or does n love They do n love Definite. I am n loving We are n loving C Thou art n loving C Ye are n loving \ You are n loving ( You are n loving He is n loving They are n loving tion — if J thought unlesSf whether — a rule which, without qualification, has a mischievous effect. On carefully examining the original state of the language, I find the common and true use ef were in the sincrular numher, is, to express hypothesis or supposition. Thus, Sax. dhron, ad annum 1017. On the third of the ides of December, at night, the nK>on appeared — " swylce he eall blodig wsre*' — suchf orjas,^he all bloody were — and the heaven was red, " swylce hitbryne w»re" — as if it were on fire. This use ofwere, in the singular number, is legitimate, and is still retained by good writers — but its use to express a mere un> certainty respecting a past event, after a si^ of condition, is obsolete or not legitimate. The following examples will illustrate the distinction — '* Whether the killing were malicious or not, is no farther a subject of hiquiry," &c. — Judge Parker ^ trial of Selfridgej p. 161. Here were is improperly used. So also where the fact is admitted : " Though he were a son, yet learned Me obedience." — Heb. 5. 8, where Lowth justlv condemns the use of were — ** Unless a felony were attempted or intendf- ed." — Seifridge*s Trial, p. 125. It ought to be was. The following is the true sense of were in the singular number — '' fFere it necessary for you to take your books with you V— Judge Par- ^r, I&m. 159. " If it were possible, iViey woxAA. det^\N^ the elect."— '^a/. 24, 24. This is the only legitimate use ot VJoia \«na%. *'''\\. '^^tfe «a*.r- " JifilUr's Letters, p. S6l .—It vou\d \)e ewy . or TVS KNOIilfH ItAHOUAOi;. 0T Past Tense, indefinite. Singular, Plural, I loved n We loved n C Thou lovedst n C Te loved n ^ Tou loved n ( Tou loved n He loved n They loved n With the Mudliary did, I did n love We did n love !Thou didst n love C Te did n love Tou did n love i Tou did n love He did n love They did n love Definite. I was n lovinff ^ We were n loving^ iThoa wast n loving C Te were n loving Tou was n loving \ Tou were n loving He was » loving They were n loving Perfect Tense, indefinite. I have n loved We have n loved C Thou hast n loved ( Te have n loved ( Tou have n loved ( Tou have n loved He has or hath » loved They have n loved Definite. I have n heen loving We have n been loving C Thou hast n been loving C Te have n been loving ( Tou have n been loving \ Tou have n been loving He has or hath n been loving They have n been loving Prior-Past, indefinite. I had n loved We had n loved !Thou hadst n loved C Te had n loved Tou had n loved ^ Tou had n loved He had n loved They had n loved Definite. I had n been loving We had n been loving C Thou hadst n been loving C Te had n been loving \ Tou had n been loving \ Tou had n been loving He had n been loving They had n been loving Future Tense, indefinite. The form of predicting. I shall n love We shall n love C Thou wilt n love C Te will n love ( Tou will n love \ You will n love He will n love They will n love The form of promising, commanding and determining. I will n love We 'wvW u Vy«^ C Thou shalt n love C^e «V\«^ u\».'- ally a present tense, or at \eaal \ude^\\\\ftr~^^ ^^xvi^»2^ does not belong to past time. It \a iutVYiei Vo \i^ ^^T^^'^'t^^ that a negative sentence always impWaa «kXL ^SSa^oi'a.w^^' TO AK IJi»^VS» €»Alim4lt it did not rain,^ implies that it does rain. On the contrary, an affirmative sentence implies a negative — ''if it did rain/' implies that it does not^ . In the past time, a similar distinction exists; for '' if it rained yesterday," denotes uncertainty in the speaker's mind -—but " if it had not rainech yesterday," implies a certainty, that it did rain. Paasive foaa. of the Veri>. — huUeaUw Mode. Singvlar, I am n loved i Thou art n loved \ You are n loved He is n loved Fxeient Tense. Past Tense. I was n loved C Thou wast n loved \ You was or were n loved He was n loved Pieilbct Tease. Plural. We are n loved !Ye are n loved You are n loved They ave n loved We were n knrcd C Ye were » loved \ You were n loved They were n loved I have n heen loved C Thou hast n been loved \ You have n been loved He has or hath n been loved We have n been loved C Ye have n been loved ^ You have n been loved They have n been loved Prior-Fast Tense. I had n been loved We had n been loved C Thou hadst n been loved. C Ye bad n been loved \ You had n been loved \ You had n been loved He had n been loved They had n been loved Future Tense. I shall or will n be loved We shall or will n be loved C Thou shalt or wilt n be loved C Ye shall or will n be loved I You shall or will n be loved (You shall or will n bo loved He shall or will n be loved They shall or will n be loved { Prior-Fntuie Tense. I shall n have been loved We shall n have been loved Thou shalt or wilt n have been r Ye shall or will n have been loved I loved You shall or will n have been i You shall or will n have been loved ' loved He shall or will n have ' been They shall or will n have been loved loved MmptTttnt jnpd$t Let me n be loved Be n loved Be thou or you n loved Do yon n be Joved* Let us n be loved Be n loved ^ "jfe OT 'jou n loved "Do "joxiL u\jfc Vw^ * The not is nsuaUy plaoed after do, wad «onU«e>VfedSxi\io imCl OF THC KMOLI8H LAITOUAOE. 7i Sinfular. Iff 4^. I am fi loved C Thou art n loved \ You are n loved He is n loved ff!, 4^. I be n loved C 7*hou be n loved \ You be n loved He be n loved 8uhjuneth€ Mode, Present Tense. Or thus : Fast Tense. fff^.l was n loved C Thou wast » loved I You was or were n loved He was n loved ijf, 4^. I were n loved C Thou wert n loved ( You were n loved He were n loved Or thus : Perfect Tense. (ff ^. 1 have n been loved C Thou hast n been loved \ You have n been loved He has or hath n been loved Prior-Past Tense. Iff 4^. I had n been loved C Thou hadst n been loved I You had n been loved He had n been loved We are n loved C Ye are n loved ^ You are n loved Thejr are n loved We be n loved iYe be n loved You be n loved They be n loved We were » loved C Ye were n loved ( You were n loved They were n loved We were n loved iYe were n loved You were n loved They were n loved We have n been loved C Ye have n been loved \ You have n been loved They have n been loved We had » been loved C Ye had n been loved \ You had n been loved They had n been loved Future Tense. Iff ^. I shall, will or should n be loved Thou shalt, wilt or shouldst n be loved You shall, will or should n be loved He shall, will or should n be loved { { We shall, will or should n be loved Ye shall, will or should n ht loved You shall, will or should n be loved They shall, will or should n be loved Iff 4^. I shall or should n have been loved Thou shalt or shouldst n have been loved You shall or should n have been loved , He $hAlJ or siiould n have beea loved { Prior-Future Tense. We shall or should n have been loved Ye shall or should f| have been loved You shall or «b.oiQid.uVA.^^\M«K:Qk. \oved ^ ( 7S AN IMPROYED OBAMICAR The future is often elliptical, the auxiliary being omit- ted. Thus, instead oi if I shaU be loved, &c. are used the foUowing forms : - {f, ^. I be n loved We be n loved C Thou be n loved C Ye be n loved I You be n loved \ You be n loved He be n loved They be n loved An exhibition of the verb in the interrogative form^ with the sign of the negative. ^ Jndicathe Mode. Present Tense, indefinite. Love In? Love we n ? C Lovest thou n? C Love ye » ? { Love you n ? J Love you n ? liovetn or loves he n? Love they n ? The foregoing form is but little used. The following is the usual mode of asking questions. Do I n love ? Do we n love ? C Dost thou n love r C Do ye n love ? \ Do you n love ? ^ Do you n love ? Does or doth he n love ? Do they n love ? Definite. Am I n loving ? Are we n loving ? C Art thou n loving ? C Are ye n loving ? I Are you n loving ? ( Are you n loving ? Is he n loving f Are they n loving ? Fast Tense, indefinite. Did I ft love ? Did we n love ? C Didst thou n love ? C Did ye n love ? \ Did you n love ? ( Did you n love ? Did he n love ? Did they n love ? The Other form of this tense, loved he 1 is seldom used. Definite. Was I n loving?^ Were we n loving ? iWast thou It loving ? C Were ye n loving ? Was or were you n loving ? ( Were you n loving ? Was he n loving ? Were they n loving ? Perfect Tense, indefinite Have I n loved ? Have we n loved ? /Haatihou n loved ? C Have ye n loved ? Huve you n ioved ? \'ft.v«^ '^wj. -aVs^^^^ Hub or hath he n loved ? , 'E.v«% >2cmk^ tv\H^«^X OF TBK KMOLISH LAHGUAGE. 79 Definite. Singular, Plural, Have I n been loving ? Have we n been loving f i Hast thou n been loving ? C Have ye n been loving ? ^ Have you n been loving ? ( Have you n been loving? Haa or hath he n been loving ? Have they n been loving ? Prior-Past, indefinite. Had 1 71 loved ? Had we n loved ? C Hadst thou n loved ? C Had ye n loved ? \ Had you n loved ? (^ Had you n loved ? Had he n loved ? Had they n loved ? Definite. Had I n been lovinfif ? Had we n been loving ? C Hadst thou n been loving? C Had ye n been loving ? ( Had you n been loving? ^ Had you n been loving? Had he n been loving ? Had they n been loving ? Future Tense, indefinite. Shall I n love ? Shall we n love ? C Shalt or wilt thou n love ? C Shall or will ye n love ? { Shall or will vou n love ?^ ^ Shall or will you n love ? Shall or will he n love ? ' Shall or will they n love ? Definite. Shall I n be loving ? Shall we n be loving ? C Shalt or wilt thou n be loving ? C Shall or will ye n be loving ? ( Shall or will vou n be lovine ? \ Shall or will you n be loving? Shall or will ne n be loving r Shall or will they n be loving ' Prior-Future, indefinite. Shall I n have loved ? Shall we n have loved ? C Shalt or wilt thou n have loved ? C Shall or will ye n have loved ? I Shall or will vou n have loved? ( Shall or will you n have loved ? Shall or will ne n have loved ? Shall or will they n have loved? The definite form of this tense, is little used. Willf in this tense, is not elegantly used in the first person. The interrogative form is not used in the imperatire mode-— a command and a question being incompatible. Let the learner be instructed that in interrogative sen- tences, the nominative follows the verb when alone, or the first auxiliary when one or more are used ; and the sign of ne- gation not, (and generally never,) immediately follows the nominative. The following combinations, with can,may, could, and might, are, by some writers, considered as forming a mode, called Potential, They may however be resolved, thus : can is a verb regularly followed by have in the ltk^ti\\AN^ ^'cA^ ^^xA V.aA.^ the participle; these together coti«^\\.\iUtv\^ ^ \^x«fc/v\ ^^ Indicative or Subjunctive Mode. "B^il \t w\^ ^x^o^*^ ^vs^'w* JkX IMPROTEB OBAMMAB more correct or convenient, to call these combinations the Potential Mode, let them do so. Present Tense. 1 may or can n have We may or can n have C Thou mayest or canst n have C Ye may or can n have \ Tou may or can n have \ You may or can n have He may or can n have They may or can n have ^ Perfect Tense. I may n have had We may n have had C Thou mayest n have had C Ye may n have had \ You may n have had ( You may n have had He may n have had They may n have had In like manner with can, Prior-Past Tense. I might n have had We miffht n have had C Thou mi^htest n have had C Ye might n have had I You miffht n have had ( You might n have had He might n have had They might n have had In like manner with cculd, wovld, and should. IRREGULAR TERBS. All verbs whose past tense and perfect participle do not end in ed are deemed irregular. The number of these is about one hundred and seventy-seven. They are of three kinds. 1. Those whose past tense and participle of the perfect are the same as the present ; as, beat, burst, cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, let, put, read, rid, set, shed, shred, shut, slit, split, spread, thrust, sweat, wet. Wet has sometimes wetted; heat sometimes ket ; but the practice is not respectable. 2. Verbs whose past time and participle are alike, but dif- ferent from the present ; as, meet, met ; sell, sold. 3. Verbs whose present and past tenses and participle are all different; as, know^ knew, knofon. A few verbs ending with ch, ck, x, p, U, ess, though regu lar, suffer a contraction of ed into^, as, snatcht for snatched, checkt for checked, snapt for snapped, mixt for mixed, dwelt for dwelled, past for passed. Others have a digraph short- ened; as, dream, dreamt; feel, felt; mean, meant; sleep, slept; deal, dealt. In afew,v is changed into/; as, bereave, berefl ; leave, lefl. As some of the past tenses and participles are obsolete or obsolescent, it is deemed proper to set these in separate col* tuana, ia italics, §or the information of the student. or TBB nfoum uuvsvAaB. 7f nUUaVLAR TSBBl Abide Am Ante, ri«e Awake Bear Beat Begin Bend Bereave Beieech Bid Bind Bite Bleed Blow Break Breed Brinff Build Bunt Buy Cast Catch Chide Chuie, choofe Cleave, to stick Cleave, to tplii Cline Clothe Come Cost Crow Creep Cut Dare Deal Diff Do*^ Draw Drive Dnnk Dwell Eat Enffrave Fall Feel Fight P4ut Ttmm, abode arose, roee awoke, awaked bore beat began, began bended, bent bereaved, bereft besought bid, bade bound bit bled blew broke breci brought buil(&d, built burst bought cast catched, caught chid chose cleaved cleft clung clotted came, come cost crowed crept cut durst, dared* dealt dug, digged drew drove drank dwelt, dwelled ate engraved fell felt fought %w PMtT» Partkifit, abode been arisen, risen awaked borne beat, beaten begun bended, bent bereaved, bereft besought bid, bidden bound bit, bitten bled blown broke, broken kraks bred brought buUt burst bought cast catched, canght chid chose, chosen cleaved dave cleft, clove, cloven clung clothed, clad come cost crowed erew crept cut dared dealt dug, digged done drawn driven, drove drave drank dwelt, dwelled eat, eaten engraven, engraved felt fbu^t ekiddm drunkmf [dnrnk * When tranaitiTe, tUe verb if always recoUz \ la/^ Vv% «mm^\&3&^ 19 AX mntoTBD